What is the Qur'an

In the name of Allah, the Beneficient, the Merciful
What is the Qur'an?
The Qur'an comprehends the complete code for the Muslims to live a good, chaste, abundant and rewarding life in obedience to the commandments of Allah, in this life and to gain salvation in the next. It is the "chart of life" for every Muslim, and it is the "constitution" of the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth.
The Qur'an is the eternal contemporary of the Muslims. Each generation of Muslims has found new sources of strength, courage and inspiration in it. It is also, for them, a "compass" in the turbulent voyage of life, as it has explained itself in the following verses:
. . . Indeed, there has come to you light and a clear book from Allah; With it Allah guides him who fill follow His pleasure into the ways of safety and brings them out of utter darkness into light by his will and guides them to the right path. (V: 15-16)
It has created an all but new phase of human thought and a fresh type of character. It deserves the highest praise for its conceptions of Divine nature in reference to the attributes of Power, Knowledge, and Universal Providence and Unity--that its belief and trust is one God, creator of Heaven and Earth is deep and fervent, and that it embodies much of a noble and moral earnestness. It is Qur'an which transformed the simple shepherds and wandering Bedouins of Arabia into the founders of empires, the builders of cities, the collectors of libraries. If a system of religious teachings is evaluated by the changes which it introduces into the way of life, the customs and beliefs of its follower, then Qur'an as a code of life is second to none. It is not strange then, that more translations and more commentaries of the Holy Qur'an have been published than that of any other book claimed to be the Divine Revelation.
By Anwer Ali. Preface to the Holy Qur'an. Published by Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an, Inc.

Facts about the Quran

In the name of Allah, the Beneficient, the Merciful
Facts about the Qur'an
The Glorious Qur'an is the Word of Allah as revealed to His Prophet, Muhammad, peace be on him and his progeny.
On reading the Qur'an one is at once convinced that it is the Word of Allah, for no man can write such perfect guidance on so many subjects.
The Holy Qur'an says that no man will be able to forge even a part of it and that no corruption shall touch it from any side. It is a miracle that the Holy Qur'an has remained unchanged and unaltered during all these 1400 years and it shall remain so till the Day of Resurrection, for Allah, has taken it on Himself to protect it.
The Book of Allah is like an ocean. The less learned, like children, collect pebbles and shells from its shores. The scholars and thinkers, like pearl divers, bring out from it the highest philosophy, wisdom and rulse of a perfect way of living.
For easy dailiy recitation, the Qur'an is divided into thirty equal parts. One part takes only twenty-four reading minutes, and the whole Book requires twelve reading hours. There are 114 chapters, and 6,226 verses, containing 99,464 words made up of 330, 113 letters.
Millions of Muslims read the Qur'an daily. Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq has said that, the minimum dailiy reading of the Qur'an should be fifty verses or one-fourth of the part, about five minutes reading.
Adapted from (Shakir, M.A.: Islamic History)

Reference: al-shia.org

The Significance and the Status of the Glorious Qur`an

The Value of the Qur'an in the Eyes of the Muslims
The Qur'an Contains a Pattern of a Complete Way of Life for Man. The religion of Islam is superior to any other in that it guarantees happiness in man's life. For Muslims, Islam is a belief system with moral and practical laws that have their source in the Qur'an. God, may He be exalted, says:
"Indeed this Qur'an guides to the path which is clearer and straighter than any other" (XVII:9).
He also says:
"We have revealed to you the book which clarifies every matter" (XVI :89) .
These references exemplify the numerous Qur'anic verses (ayat) which mention the principles of religious belief, moral virtues and a general legal system governing all aspects of human behavior. A consideration of the following topics will enable one to understand that the Qur'an provides a comprehensive programme of activity for man's life. Man has no other aim in life but the pursuit of happiness and pleasure, which manifests itself in much the same way as love of ease or wealth. Although some individuals seem to reject this happiness, for example, by ending their lives in suicide, or by turning away from a life of leisure, they too, in their own way, confirm this principle of happiness; for, in seeking an end to their life or of material pleasure, they are still asserting their own personal choice of what happiness means to them. Human actions, therefore, are directed largely by the prospects of happiness and prosperity offered by a certain idea, whether that idea be true or false. Man's activity in life is guided by a specific plan or programme. This fact is self-evident, even though it is sometimes concealed by its very apparentness.
Man acts according to his will and desires; he also weighs the necessity of a task before undertaking it. In this he is promoted by an inherent scientific law, which is to say that he performs a task for "himself" in fulfilling needs which he perceives are necessary. There is, therefore, a direct link between the objective of a task and its execution. Any action undertaken by man, whether it be eating, sleeping or walking, occupies its own specific place and demands its own particular efforts. Yet an action is implemented according to an inherent law, the general concept of which is stored in man's perception and is recalled by motions associated with that action.
This notion holds true whether or not one is obliged to undertake the action or whether or not the circumstances are favourable. Every man, in respect of his own actions, is as the state in relation to its individual citizens, whose activity is controlled by specific laws, customs and behavior. Just as the active forces in a state are obliged to adapt their actions according to certain laws, so is the social activity of a community composed of the actions of each individual. If this were not the case, the different components of society would fall apart and be destroyed in anarchy in the shortest time imaginable. If a society is religious, its government will reflect that religion; if it is secular, it will be regulated by a corresponding code of law. If a society is uncivilized and barbaric, a code of behavior imposed by a tyrant will appear; otherwise, the conflict of various belief-systems within such a society will produce lawlessness.
Thus man, as an individual element of society, has no option but to possess and pursue a goal. He is guided in the pursuit of his goal by the path which corresponds to it and by the rules which must necessarily accompany his programme of activity. The Qur'an affirms this idea when it says that:
"every man has a goal to which he is turning, so compete with each other in good action" (II:148)
In the usage of the Qur'an, the word din (1) is basically applied to a way, a pattern of living, and neither the believer nor the non-believer is without a path, be it prophetic or man-made. God, may He be exalted, describes the enemies of the divine din (religion) as those:
"who prevent others from the path of God and would have it crooked" (VII:45)
This verse shows that the term Sabil Allah - the path of God - used in the verse refers to the din of fitra - the inherent pattern of life intended by God for man). It also indicates that even those who do not believe in God implement His din, albeit in a deviated form; this deviation, which becomes their din, is also encompassed in God's programme. The best and firmest path in life for man is the one which is dictated by his innate being and not by the sentiments of any individual or society. A close examination of any part of creation reveals that, from its very inception, it is guided by an innate purpose towards fulfilling its nature along the most appropriate and shortest path; every aspect of each part of creation is equipped to do so, acting as a blueprint for defining the nature of its existence. Indeed all of creation, be it animate or inanimate, is made up in this manner. As an example, we may say that a green-tipped shoot, emerging from a single grain in the earth, is "aware" of its future existence as a plant which will yield an ear of wheat. By means of its inherent characteristics, the shoot acquires various mineral elements for its growth from the soil and changes, day by day, in form and strength until it becomes a fully-matured grain-bearing plant - and so comes to the end of its natural cycle. Similarly, if we investigate the life-cycle of the walnut tree, we observe that it too is "aware", from the very beginning, of its own specific purpose in life, namely, to grow into a big walnut tree. It reaches this goal by developing according to its own distinct inherent characteristics; it does not, for example, follow the path of the wheat-plant in fulfilling its goal just as the wheat-plant does not follow the life pattern of the walnut tree. Since every created object which makes up the visible world is subject to this same general law, there is no reason to doubt that man, as a species of creation, is not. Indeed his physical capabilities are the best proof of this rule; like the rest of creation, they allow him to realize his purpose, and ultimate happiness, in life. Thus, we observe that man, in fact, guides himself to happiness and well-being merely by applying the fundamental laws inherent in his own nature. This law is confirmed by God in the Qur'an, through His Prophet Moses, when he says:
"Our Lord is He who gave everything its nature, then guided it" (XX:50)
It is further explained in LXXXVII:2-3 as:
"He who created and fashioned in balanced proportion and He who measures and guides"
As to the creation and the nature of man, the Qur'an says:
"By the soul and Him who fashioned it and then inspired it with wrong action and fear of God; he is truly successful who causes it to grow and purifies it and he is a failure who corrupts and destroys it" (XCI:7-l0)
God enjoins upon man the duty to "strive towards a sincere application of the din," (that is, the fitrah of God, or the natural code of behavior upon which He has created mankind), since
"there is no changing (the laws of) the creation of God" (XXX 30)
He also says that:
"In truth, the only deen recognized by God is Islam" (III: l9)
Here, Islam means submission, the method of submission to these very laws. The Qur'an further warns that:
"the actions of the man who chooses a din other than Islam will not be accepted" (III:85)
The gist of the above verses, and other references on the same subject, is that God has guided every creature - be it man, beast or vegetable - to a state of well-being and self-fulfilment appropriate to its individual make-up. Thus the appropriate path for man lies in the adoption of personal and social laws particular to his own fitrah (or innate nature), and in avoiding people who have become "denaturalized" by following their own notions or passions. It is clearly underlined that fitrah, far from denying man's feelings and passions, accords each its proper due and allows man's conflicting spiritual and material needs to be fulfilled in a harmonious fashion. Thus, we may conclude that the intellect `aql should rule man in matters pertaining to individual or personal decisions, rather than his feelings. Similarly, truth and justice should govern society and not the whim of a tyrant or even the will of a majority, if that be contrary to a society's true benefit.
From this we may conclude that only God is empowered to make laws, since the only laws useful to man are those which are made according to his inherent nature. It also follows that man's needs, arising from his outward circumstance and his inner reality, are fulfilled only by obeying God's instructions (or laws). These needs may arise through events beyond man's control or as a result of the natural demands of his body. Both are encompassed in the plan of life that God has designated for man. For, as the Qur'an says, the "decision rests with God only," (XII:40,67)
which is to say that there is no governance (of man or society, of the inner or the outer) except that of God. Without a specific creational plan, based on the innate disposition of man, life would be fruitless and without meaning. We may understand this only through belief in God and a knowledge of his Unity, as explained in the Qur'an. From here we may proceed to an understanding of the Day of Judgment, when man is rewarded or punished according to his deeds. Thereafter, we may arrive at a knowledge of the prophets and of prophetic teachings, since man cannot be judged without being first instructed in the matter of obedience and disobedience.
These three fundamental teachings are considered to be the roots of the Islamic way of life. To these we may add the fundamentals of good character and morals which a true believer must possess, and which are a necessary extension of the three basic beliefs mentioned above. The laws governing daily activity not only guarantee man's happiness and moral character but, more importantly, increase his understanding of these beliefs and of the fundamentals of Islam. It is clear that a thief, a traitor, a squanderer or a libertine do not possess the quality of innocence; nor can a miser, who hoards money, be called a generous person. Similarly, some- one who never prays or remembers God cannot be called a believer in God and the Last Day, nor be described as His servant.
From this we may conclude that good character flourishes when joined to a pattern of correct actions; morals are to be found in the man whose beliefs are in harmony with these fundamentals. A proud man cannot be expected to believe in God nor be humble in respect to the Divine; nor can the man, who has never understood the meaning of humanity, justice, mercy or compassion, believe in the Day of Rising and the Judgment. Chapter XXXV:10 speaks of the relationship between a sincere system of belief and a fitting character:
"Pure speech rises up to Him and He raises up good deeds still further" . In chapter XXX:IO we learn again of this relationship between belief and action:
"Then evil was the consequence of those who do wrong action because they denied the signs of Allah and they made a mock of them"
To summarize, the Qur'an is composed of the following Islamic fundamentals which together form an interlocking whole: a primary system of belief in the Unity of God, Prophethood and the Day of Reckoning, accompanied by a second group of beliefs, namely, belief in the Tablet, the Pen (which delineates the sequence of cosmic events), the rule of destiny and the decree (without implying pre-determination), the angels, the throne of the Creator, and, finally, in the creation of the sky, the earth and everything between them.
Thereafter, we observe that man's well-being lies in his character being in harmony with these principles. The shariah, namely the laws and code of behavior explained in the Qur'an and commented upon in every detail by the model of the Prophet's life, is the means whereby a man may practise these principles. At this point we should add that the Prophet's family are his chosen heirs and are entrusted with the task of exemplifying and explaining further the prophetic message and the shariah after the Prophet's death. The Prophet himself has shown that the tradition, hadith, known as the hadith (2) al-thaqalayn which all sects of Islam accept, refers specifically to this matter of succession.
* * *
The Qur'an as a Document of Prophethood
The Qur'an refers on several occasions to the fact that it is the word of God, that it issues from a divine source in the very words in which the Prophet received them and which he later transmitted. The divine nature of the Qur'an is affirmed in several verses. In LII:33-34 we read:
"or they say that (the Prophet) is inventing it. Indeed they do not believe. If they are truthful then let them produce words like it"
Likewise in XVII:88:
"Say (O Muhammad), if all the jinn and mankind were to join forces to produce something like this Qur'an they could not produce it even if they were to help one another"
Again, in XI:13:
"or they say he has invented it! Say: then produce ten verses like it which you have invented"
and again in X:38:
"or they say he has invented it. Say: produce a single chapter like it"
we find further proof.
The following challenge is made in Chapter II:23:
"and if you are in doubt concerning that which we have revealed to Our slave then produce a chapter like it"
Here it should be noted that the Qur'an is addressing those who grew up with Muhammad, the man they knew to be unlettered and untutored in the matters spoken about in the Qur'an. Despite this knowledge, they still doubt. Another challenge is issued, (to those who would find contradictions in the Qur'an, but obviously cannot):
Will they not reflect upon the Qur'an? If it had been from other than God, they would have found in it much incongruity" (IV:82)
Since everything in the world is in a state of growth and self-perfection, then the Qur'an would of necessity lack harmony since it was revealed over a period of twenty-three years; it would lack harmony that is if we were to suppose that it was the work of a man rather than of a prophet. The Qur'an, whose messages announce and confirm that it is the work of God, also teaches us that Muhammad is a messenger, sent by God, thus confirming the authenticity of the Prophet. In chapter XIII:43 God speaks Himself, as on many occasions, confirming that He is witness and testimony to the prophecy of Muhammad:
"Say God is sufficient witness between you and me."
The verse refers to disbelievers and defies their disbelief. In another verse, the testimony of angels is added to that of God's:
"But God testifies concerning that which he has resealed to you; He has revealed it in His knowledge; and the Angels also testify. And God is sufficient witness" (IV:166)
Notes:
1. Usually translated to mean religion, the word strongly implies transaction between the Debtor (God) and the indebted (man). Hence, living the din means repaying one's debt to the Creator.
2. A report of the words or deeds of the Prophet which has been transmitted to us intact by a chain, or numerous chains, of trustworthy narrators. The tradition in question here possesses an unbroken chain of transmission back to the Prophet himself; these verses confirm the miraculous quality of the book and state that it is beyond the power of man to produce such a work.
Reference: al-shia.org

The QURA'N, Knowledge, and Science

In the Name of Allah, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful

"The Qur'an, Knowledge,& Science"
The Description of Knowledge in the Qur'an and by the Prophet (P)

There are plenty of references to knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge in the Qur'an. The general feeling they leave the reader with is that the possessor of knowledge or wisdom has been given a very powerful gift, and that the pursuit of knowledge is something which should be done actively by everyone. Here are a few verses on the subject:
[96:1-5] Read! In the name of your Lord who created - Created the human from something which clings. Read! And your Lord is Most Bountiful - He who taught (the use of) the Pen, Taught the human that which he knew not.
These five verses make up the first passage revealed from the Qur'an to mankind through the Prophet Muhammad (saas). It is interesting that of all the things which Allah chose to begin His revelation with is related to the actions of reading and writing, especially the latter. The ability to write and store information is described by Professor Carl Sagan in his book COSMOS: "Writing is perhaps the greatest of human inventions, binding together people, citizens of distant epochs, who never knew one another. Books break the shackles of time, proof that humans can work magic." [21]
[2:269] He [Allah] grants wisdom to whom He pleases; and he to whom wisdom is granted indeed receives a benefit overflowing. But none will grasp the Message except men of understanding.
[20:114] High above all is Allah, the King, the Truth. Do not be in haste with the Qur'an before its revelation to you is completed, but say, "O my Sustainer! Increase my knowledge."
[3:190-191] Verily in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day - there are indeed signs for men of understanding; Men who remember Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and contemplate the creation of the heavens and the earth (with the thought) "Our Lord! Not for nothing have You created (all) this. Glory to You! Give us salvation from the suffering of the Fire."
These verses are a clear demonstration that 'science' and 'religion' were NOT meant to be fundamentally incompatible with each other by Allah. In fact, verses [3:190-191] strongly imply that "contemplating" the world around us is an integral part of faith.
[29:20] Say: Travel through the earth and see how Allah originated creation; so will Allah produce the second creation (of the Afterlife): for Allah has power over all things.
There are also references in the Qur'an describing the value (in the sight of Allah) of a knowledgeable person as opposed to an ignorant person. They are not equal:
[39:9] ...Say: Are those equal, those who know and those who do not know? It is those who are endued with understanding that remember (Allah's Message).
[58:11] ...Allah will raise up to (suitable) ranks (and degrees) those of you who believe and who have been granted knowledge.
The first source of Islam is the Qur'an - and we have seen some verses above on the subject of knowledge. The second source is the life of Prophet Muhammad (saas). Here are a few of the Prophet's sayings on the subject of knowledge:
"Upon a person whom Allah desires good, He bestows the knowledge of faith." - from the hadith collections of Bukhari and Muslim
"A person who follows a path for acquiring knowledge, Allah will make easy the passage to Paradise for him." - from the collection of Muslim
"A Muslim is never satiated in his quest for good (knowledge) till it ends in Paradise." - from the collection of Tirmidhi
The Relationship Between the Qur'an and Modern Science
Modern scientific theory today finds itself quite close to the Qur'an. There are at least two reasons behind this observation. The first is the lack of inconsistencies between the Qur'an and observable natural phenomena. Science has not been able to produce theories or experiments that fundamentally contradict the Qur'an. Had our science done so, either our understanding of the Qur'an or of the world would have been to blame: the Qur'an itself is true for all times. The second reason for the remarkable harmony between the Qur'an and science is the presence in the Qur'an itself of very clear and positive encouragement to contemplate and investigate the world around us. As the verses quoted above indicate, Allah has not forbidden man to question, and in fact, it seems He wants us to do so.

However, the Qur'an goes beyond simply encouraging all human beings to be aware of the natural world. It also contains widely dispersed references on a variety of subjects which are not only scientifically accurate, but in some cases, quite advanced relative to the time of the Prophet Muhammad (saas). For the Muslim who reads and understands these references, they serve to strengthen his or her faith of course. For the non-Muslim who questions the authenticity or authorship of the Qur'an, these references provide some interesting answers. One possible reason for these Qur'anic verses which describe the natural world can be found in the following verse:
[41:53] Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (farthest) horizons, and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that it is the Truth...
The historical event which this verse alludes to is the conquest of Makkah. However, almost every verse in the Qur'an carries a historical and a universal meaning, and therefore one possible interpretation of this verse is that it refers to the gradual discovery of greater and greater natural "evidence" of the Creator's involvement in our world. Two of the most important and most fascinating goals of modern science are to peer farther and farther out to the edge of the universe, and to look deeper and deeper into the structure of the human body. It is in these two areas that we find the "signature" of Allah's creative power at its strongest.
A Selection of Qur'anic Verses which Comment on the Natural World
A. - On the ongoing process of creation
[16:8] ...and He creates other things beyond your knowledge...
[24:45] ...Allah creates what He wills...
These two verses, among others, indicate that Allah has not 'finished' creation; rather, it is an ongoing process. This is very significant from a scientific point of view because we are gradually beginning to observe and understand certain natural phenomena which are still in a process of formation. One prime example is our observation of still- emerging galaxies from huge clouds of nebulae. Another is the evolution of species, with its associated evidence of strange and exotic "intermediate" life forms turned into fossils. These two examples are just the tip of the iceberg; the following excerpt from the physicist Paul Davies' book The Cosmic Blueprint underscores the growing awareness of continuous creation:
"An increasing number of scientists and writers have come to realize that the ability of the physical world to organize itself constitutes a fundamental, and deeply mysterious, property of the universe. The fact that nature has creative power, and is able to produce a progressively richer variety of complex forms and structures, challenges the very foundation of contemporary science. 'The greatest riddle of cosmology,' writes Karl Popper, the well-known philosopher, 'may well be...that the universe is, in a sense, creative.'" [21]
B. - On pollution and the wasting of natural resources
[30:41] Rottenness (decay/corruption) has appeared on land and sea because of what the hands of men have earned, that (Allah) may give them a taste of some of their deeds, in order that they may turn back (from evil).
[7:31] O Children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer; eat and drink, but waste not by excess, for Allah does not love those who waste.
The importance of understanding the ecological consequences of our actions as individuals or as a society was not fully appreciated until this century. We now understand that we cannot alter the face of the earth indiscriminately without paying some penalty, which may be disastrous. We also understand that caution ought to be applied globally, not just locally but truly "on land and sea". Ecological awareness does not imply asceticism however. According to the Qur'an, we are not forbidden to take pleasure in this life, however we are forbidden from wasting resources needlessly.
C. - On the dual nature of iron
[57:25] ...And We sent down iron in which is mighty harm, as well as many benefits for mankind...
Iron is one of two metals found abundantly on the earth (aluminum being the other). It was known to many ancient civilizations, and is the most important metal we use today. The general description of it in the Qur'an was accurate in the time of the ancients, and it is even more so today: iron is the basis for most weapons of war and most of the everyday tools which we work with.
D. - On the origin of life in water
[21:30] ...And We made every living thing from water...
[24:45] And Allah has created every animal from water...
Modern scientific theory on the origin of life was not firmly established up until the last two or three centuries. Prior to that, the predominant theory on the origin of life was based on a concept called "spontaneous generation" where living creatures literally popped out of inanimate matter spontaneously and continuously. This view was discredited with the work of many Renaissance scientists including Harvey and Redi, and in the 1850's, Louis Pasteur's research on bacteriology sealed the coffin on this theory. Starting with the work of Huxley up to the present day, an alternative theory has been proposed where life is understood to have emerged from a long, increasingly complex chain of chemical reactions. These reactions are believed to have begun in the depths of the oceans because the atmosphere was not sufficiently developed to protect living organisms from ultraviolet radiation:
"...it is believed that early forms of life developed in oceans or pools...It has been suggested that the colonization of land, about 425,000,000 years ago, was possible only because enough ozone was then produced to shield the surface from ultraviolet light for the first time." [20]
This idea of life originating in the oceans is strongly supported by the two Qur'anic verses quoted above.
It is important to note however that the Qur'an does NOT contain an exclusive endorsement for evolution. While the verses quoted above indicate beyond any doubt that Allah created all living things from water, there are many other verses that emphasize His Absolute power over everything.
[41:39] "...For He (Allah) has power over all things."
[3:47] "...when He has decreed a matter, He only says to it, 'Be', and it is."
E. - On the diversity of mankind
[30:22] And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in your languages and your colors; verily in that are Signs for those who know.
[49:13] O mankind! We created you from a male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the one who is most deeply conscious of Him...
The racial and linguistic differences between humans are not meant as reasons to discriminate. Allah simply describes this diversity as a part of His creative power, and He does not single out any race as being inherently superior to the others. The emphasis in [49:13], in fact, is to learn to communicate with one another.
F. - On the Water Cycle
Most of us are familiar with the water cycle from our classes in middle school, where we learned how a drop of seawater evaporates, then becomes a drop of rainwater, and then finally returns to the sea via rivers or underground channels. The first person in modern times to understand this process was Bernard Palissy who described it correctly in 1580 [10]. Prior to him, most of the ancient Greek and Roman scholars had various incomplete or incorrect theories on the water cycle (Plato, for example, believed that precipitation eventually descended into the abyss called Tartarus and from there it fed into the oceans [10]).

The Qur'an does not give a complete description of the water cycle from start to end, however there are a few precise references to specific stages. Perhaps the most fascinating of these references are the following two verses on rain clouds:
[30:48] It is Allah Who sends the winds, and then they raise clouds: then He spreads them in the sky as He wills and makes them dark, then you see the drops issue from the midst of them...
[24:43] Don't you see how Allah drives clouds with force, then joins them together, then makes them into a heap? - then you see the drops issue from the midst of them. And He sends down from the sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail: He strikes therewith whom He pleases and He turns it away from whom He pleases. The flash of His lightning well-nigh snatches away the sight.
The two verses are describing the stages in the formation of rain clouds, which is in turn a stage in the water cycle. A close examination of these two verses suggests that they make reference to two different phenomena, one of "spreading" the clouds and the other of "joining" them together, two different processes by which rain clouds might be formed.

Modern meteorology has come to this very conclusion within the last two centuries. [17,18,19]

There are two types of clouds which can yield precipitation, and they are classified by their shape: stratus (layer-type) and cumulus (heap- type). The precipitative layer clouds are further subdivided into stratus and nimbostratus (nimbo meaning rain). The first verse above on rain clouds ([30:48]) precisely sums up the formation of layer rain clouds. It is known today that these types of clouds are started under conditions of gradual, rising winds:
"...and then they [winds] raise clouds..." [30:48]
Next, the cloud takes on its distinctive shape, that of a layer:
"...then He spreads them..." [30:48]
If the conditions are right (i.e. low enough temperature, high enough humidity, etc.), the cloud droplets further condense into (larger) rain droplets, and we observe this effect from the ground as a darkening of the cloud layer:
"...and makes them dark..." [30:48]
Finally, drops of rain fall from the cloud.
"...then you see the drops issue from the midst of them..." [30:48]
The second type of precipitative cloud is the heap type, and it is subdivided into cumulus, cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus. These clouds are characterized by being puffy-shaped and piled upon each other. Cumulus and cumulonimbus are the true heap clouds - stratocumulus is a form of degenerated, spread-out cumulus [18]. The second verse above on rain clouds [24:43] describes the formation of heap rain clouds. These clouds are formed under conditions of strong updrafts (thermals) and downdrafts of air:
"...drives clouds with force..." [24:43]
As the puffs of clouds form, they may unite into a single giant cloud, all piled up on top of one another:
"...then joins them together, then makes them into a heap..." [24:43]
At this point, either a cumulus or a cumulonimbus cloud has formed - either of which can yield rain. The rest of the verse is applicable to the case of a cumulonimbus (which is familiar to all of us as the towering thunderstorm cloud). If the heap cloud assumes large vertical proportions, then it can appear to the observer on the ground as a huge mountain or hill, but more importantly, by extending high into the atmosphere, the upper cloud droplets can freeze and thereby yield hail [17, 18]:
"...And He sends down from the sky mountains (of clouds) wherein is hail..." [24:43]
Finally, cumulonimbus clouds (i.e. thunderstorms) can have one last vivid property: lightning [17, 18]:
"...The flash of His lightning well-nigh snatches away the sight..." [24:43]

Other Qur'anic verses deal with more stages in the water cycle.
[23:18] And We send down water from the sky according to (due) measure, then We cause it soak into the soil. And We are most certainly able to withdraw it.
This is a single verse stating that rainfall is absorbed into the ground and that it can eventually be removed (drained).
[13:17] He sends down water from the sky, and the rivers flow, each according to its measure...
[39:21] Don't you see that Allah sends down rain from the sky, and leads it through the springs in the earth?...
Two methods by which absorbed rainfall is moved are described here: surface and underground rivers.

There are other references in the Qur'an to the water cycle (e.g. [40:13], [23:18], [25:48], [29:63], and others) , and all of them have the same property as the verses quoted above: modern scientific findings are fully compatible with them [10].

A few other verses also deal with water but in a slightly different context. They are not nearly as numerous as the verses on the water cycle.
[56:68-69] Do you see the water which you drink? Do you bring it down from the cloud or do We?
This rhetorical question emphasizes our inability to fulfill one of our oldest dreams: to control the rain. The fact is we cannot make it rain unless a pre-existing cloud is in the vicinity - and then only under the proper conditions, and even then we are not assured of success. The cloud should have different sized cloud particles, a high rate of condensation from the rising air, and good vertical development. If all of these characteristics are present, then we MAY coax some more rain out through cloud seeding and various other techniques. However, modern meteorologists are unsure of its effectiveness. Regardless, it is the presence of the necessary preconditions which we have no control over, and this ultimately stops us from arbitrarily bringing down the water of any cloud in the form of rain [10].

The following verse describes a property of large rivers.
[25:53] It is He who has caused to mix freely the two great bodies of water, this one pleasant-tasting and sweet and this one salty and bitter, and He made between them a barrier and a forbidding ban.
A description of the estuaries of large rivers is supplied by the verse above. These estuaries are relatively unusual because the outgoing fresh water of the river does not immediately mix with the salt water of the sea into which the river empties. Instead, the fresh water penetrates deep into the salt water body before any mixing occurs, far from the mouth of the river. Small rivers do not have this property. [10]

Finally, one more reference to clouds.
[52:44] And were they to see a piece of the sky falling down, they would (only) say "Heaps of clouds!"
Another reference to clouds but this time in the context of responding to a challenge by an earlier peoples who ridiculed a prophet by asking him to cause a piece of the sky to fall on them, apparently thinking it to be a solid cap around the earth. Allah refutes their challenge here, declaring that they would only find a pile of clouds, something all of us would understand today. [10]
G. - On Human Embryological and Fetal Development
The Qur'an has an extensive amount of information on the growth of the human embryo and fetus, especially the former. Before presenting this information, it may be helpful to provide a brief outline of human development in the womb as modern science understands it. [10]
1. An unfertilized egg is produced by the female, and is subsequently placed in her Fallopian tubes.
2. The male cohabits with the female, and a single sperm cell fertilizes the egg.
3. The fertilized egg retreats into the uterus, and attaches itself to the uterine wall.
4. Embryological growth (roughly 3 months).
5. Fetal growth (6 months).
6. Birth
We will examine some of these stages in greater detail as the verses in the Qur'an require. First, however, two verses which give a general overview of human development:
[71:14] ...seeing that it is He (Allah) Who has created you in stages...
[35:11] And Allah created you from dust, then from a drop...
The first verse is a very general, yet accurate description of our creation as coming in stages (see the six-step outline above). The second verse puts some perspective on the whole affair: how man originally came from dust (Adam), and then from a drop.

There are at least four specific details regarding human development in the Qur'an which modern science has revealed only within the last few centuries, and in some cases only in this present century. The first concerns the emission of semen:
[75:37] Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted?
In spite of the large amount of liquid which can be produced by a man during human intercourse, this verse emphasizes that only a small drop of it is important.

The second important detail in the Qur'an on human development is the description of the fertilizing liquid (i.e. semen):
[86:6] He (man) is created from a gushing liquid.
[76:2] We created the human from a drop which is a mixture...
[32:8] Then He (Allah) made his (Adam's) progeny from a quintessence of a despised liquid.
The second and third verses relate to the contents of semen. Modern science has established that semen is in fact a composition of different secretions which come from four different glands during ejaculation: the testicles, the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the urinary tract glands. The actual sperm cells come from the testicles; the other three glands produce no fertilizing agents. The Qur'an goes farther than just informing us that semen is a mixture of liquids. It tells us in [32:8] that only the "quintessence" of the liquid is used (the "despised" comes from the fact that semen is emitted from the same place as urine, and thus may be despicable in some people's sight). The Arabic word for "quintessence" in this verse signifies extracting the absolute best out of something. The numbers tell the story: a normal ejaculation involves about 3 ml of fluid containing between 120,000,000 and 150,000,000 sperm cells. Of these cells, only one fertilizes the egg in the female, and this is the point which [32:8] alludes to [15].

A third detail of human development mentioned in the Qur'an concerns the newly fertilized egg:
[75:37-38] Was he (man) not a drop of semen emitted? Then he did become something leech-like which clings...
Recent observations of the fertilized egg in the womb have revealed that the egg literally implants itself into the uterine wall. It "clings" in the strongest sense, and it remains like so in the early stage of development. On top of that, the developing organism acts as a leech on the female host in the sense that it draws its sustenance directly from its mother's body [10].

Finally, the Qur'an gives a fascinating account of embryological development (the first three months) in the following verses (certain words have been transliterated directly from the Arabic):
[23:14] ...We made the drop into an ALAQAH (leech-like structure), and then We changed the ALAQAH into a MUDGHAH (chewed-like substance), then We changed the MUDGHAH into IDHAAM (bones, skeleton), then We clothed the IDHAAM with LAHM (flesh, muscles), then We caused him to grow and come into being as another creation.
[22:5] ...We created you out of dust, then out of a drop, then out of a MUDGHAH, partly formed and partly unformed...
Verse [23:14] divides embryological development into four stages. The first stage picks up right after fertilization ("drop"), and is characterized by an ALAQAH or "leech-like structure" which describes how the egg implants itself into the uterus (see above). The second stage describes the embryo as evolving into a MUDGHAH which means something which has been chewed (especially a piece of meat), or which has the appearance of having been chewed. This seemingly crude description is in fact quite accurate: after the fertilized egg lodges itself in the uterus, it begins to receive its first nutrients and energy from its mother. Consequently, it begins to grow especially rapidly, and after a week or two it looks like a ragged piece of meat to the naked eye. This effect is enhanced by the development of small buds and protrusions which will eventually grow into complete organs and limbs.

The next two stages described in verse [23:14] tell of bones being made from the MUDGHAH, followed by the "clothing" of the bones with flesh or muscles. If we follow the progress of the embryo with our own eyes, we find that after approximately four weeks, a process called 'differentiation' begins, where groups of cells within the embryo transform themselves to form certain large organs. One of the earliest structures to develop in this stage is the cartilaginous basis of the human skeleton (in subsequent months, the cartilage hardens or ossifies). It is followed soon after by the appearance of a host of other organs including muscles, ears, eyes, kidneys, heart, and more. This maintains the order described in the Qur'an. Verse [23:14] concludes with the growth of the organism in the womb (and simple growth is the primary characteristic of the fetal stage) followed by its birth.

Verse [22:5] adds one more interesting note on the embryo. In this verse, the MUDGHAH is qualified with the phrase
"partly formed and partly unformed."
As alluded to above, our modern observations of embryological development have revealed how different structures and organs develop one after another through differentiation. This gives rise to unusual situations where the embryo is unevenly formed (i.e. lungs but no ears for example). [11,16]
H. - On Cosmology
Of all the references in the Qur'an to scientific matters, the most numerous are on the creation and structure of the universe and the earth. This area is singled out in several verses like the one below as an example of Allah's creative power:
[45:3] Verily, in the heavens and the earth are signs for those who believe.
For a much more detailed exposition of the Qur'an and cosmology (and science in general), interested readers should consider reading M. Bucaille's book 'The Bible, The Qur'an, and Science' [10]. Below, a brief summary of some of the more powerful verses.

First, a verse which makes a small note regarding the age of mankind with respect to the universe:
[76:1] Has there not been over Man a long period of Time when he was not yet a thing thought of?
The Arabic word for "Time" in this verse is "Dahr" and it can mean either all of eternity or simply a tremendously long time. Modern science can help us understand this verse better. The first appearance of humans on this earth is estimated to have occurred on the order of one million years ago. The age of the universe, on the other hand, is estimated at roughly fifteen billion years. If we normalize the age of the universe to one day, then man would be less than six seconds old.

The following verse deals with the creation of the heavens and the earth.
[50:38] And We created the heavens and the earth and all between them in six days, and nothing touched us of weariness.
Notice the sharp counterpoint to the Bible at the end of this verse regarding whether Allah "rested" after the sixth day from tiredness. However, a more subtle yet perhaps vastly more important difference is brought out when we look at the first verse in the Bible, Genesis [1:1]:
Bible [1:1] In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
There is no mention of "and all between them", as opposed to the Qur'an (which refers to this in several verses, no less). Modern science has just within this last century discovered that much of the mass of the universe is contained in the vast spaces between galaxies and stars (ignoring for the moment the possibility of 'dark matter' which would only make a stronger point). In spite of having only a single hydrogen atom every few cubic meters on average (interstellar material), the universe is so huge that the "empty" space may account for more of the total universe's mass than all the stars combined - at the very least, it is a significant amount. Thus, it is an important omission to leave out "all between" the earth and the other stars and galaxies ("heavens").

As to the debate which has wracked Christianity and Judaism for centuries regarding the meaning of "six days", the word "days" in classical Arabic has a secondary meaning of a "very long time" or an "era" [12]. The Qur'an, however, presents a conclusive answer to this question via the following three verses scattered throughout the text:
[22:47] And yet they ask you to hasten on the Punishment! But Allah will not fail in His promise. Verily a Day in the sight of your Lord is like a thousand years of your reckoning.
[32:5] He (Allah) directs (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him on a Day the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning.
[70:4] The angels and the Spirit ascend to Him in a Day the space whereof is (as) fifty thousand years.
It is clear from these verses that a "day" in the Qur'an can easily have different meanings in different contexts, and is thus not constrained to mean a strict 24-hour period.

The next two verses address certain details of creation.
[21:30] Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart?...
[41:11] Moreover, He applied His design to the heavens, while it was (yet) vapor,and He said to it and to the earth, "Come (into being), willingly or unwillingly." They said, "We do come in obedience."
Verse [21:30] foreshadows the modern cosmological theory known as the Big Bang theory wherein all matter is presumed to have originated from a violent explosion. Verse [41:11] refers to a later stage in creation, one in which a cosmologist would describe the universe as filled with a nebulous gas undergoing a slow coalescence into gross structures such as clusters, galaxies, stars, and so on. The words of these two verses may seem coarse and simplistic to the modern eye, but this does not detract from their general accuracy.

Then there are verses that speak of the sun and the moon.
[25:61] Blessed is He Who put in the heavens constellations, and put in it a lamp and a light-giving moon.
This verse emphasizes the sun as a direct source of light ("lamp"), whereas the moon is not given this title. Man has long since established that the moon's light is simply reflected sunlight.
[55:5] The sun and the moon follow precise courses.
The meaning of this verse is obvious, and we have known the mathematical description of these "courses" since Kepler and Newton formulated them several centuries ago.
[21:33] It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon: all swim along, each in its rounded course.
This verse supplements the previous one: here, we learn that the sun and moon follow "rounded courses." It is significant that the Arabic word used here - "falak" - does not mean circular course, just rounded. Kepler was the first European astronomer to realize that the paths of the planets and the moon are elliptical. It was not until later, though, that astronomers also realized that the sun has an orbit as well - around the center of the Milky Way.

The Qur'an contains a number of verses on the structure and contents of the universe. There are too many to list here, but the following three form an interesting sample:
[51:47] And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand.
Flatly stating what Einstein refused to believe at first, this verse anticipates Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe by approximately thirteen centuries. This verse makes a very clear point that the expansion is continuous (until the Day of Judgement, which is guaranteed by Allah to come upon us unexpectedly).
[42:29] And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the living creatures that He has scattered through both of them...
[45:13] And He has subjected to you (man), from Him, all that is in the heavens and on earth: behold, in that are signs indeed for those who reflect.
These two verses are extremely interesting. Not only does the first one very strongly imply the existence of living creatures on other planets throughout the universe, but the second tells us that the heavens are "subject" to us. With a little imagination, we (or perhaps our children) can begin dreaming of the possibility of interstellar travel - and not just confined to our own solar system!
Bibliography
[1]. The Qur'an
[2]. At-Tabari. Abridged Tafseer (commentary) of the Qur'an. Arabic
[3]. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an. Amana Corporation, Maryland, 1991
[4]. Asad, Muhammad. The Message of the Qur'an. Dar-Al-Andalus Limited, Gibraltar, 1984
[5]. Irving, Thomas. The Noble Qur'an. Amana Books, Vermont, 1992.
[6]. Pickthall, Mohammed. The Meaning of the Glorious Koran. Penguin Books, New York
[7]. Dawood, N. J. The Koran. Penguin Books, London, 1990
[8]. Nadvi, Syed M. Muslim Thought and its Source. Ashraf Press, Lahore, 1947
[9]. Kazi, Mazhar. Guidance from the Messanger. Islamic Circle of North America, New York, 1990
[10]. Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the Qur'an, and Science. American Trust Publications, Indiana, 1979
[11]. Moore, K., A. Zindani, M. Ahmed. New Terms For Classifying Human Development
[12]. Wehr, Hans. Arabic-English Dictionary. Spoken Language Services, New York, 1976
[13]. Steingass, F. Arabic-English Dictionary. Librairie du Liban, Lebanon, 1978
[14]. The Holy Bible - Revised Standard Version
[15]. Sussman, Maurice. Developmental Biology. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1973
[16]. Bodemer, Charles. Embryology, Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Incorporated, Connecticut, 1988
[17]. Chandler, T. J. The air around us. Natural History Press, New York, 1969
[18]. Kotsch, William. Weather for the Mariner. Naval Institute Press, Maryland, 1983
[19]. Battan, Louis. Fundamentals of Meteorology. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1983
[20]. Sagan, Carl et. al. Life, Encyclopedia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Chicago, 1992
[21]. Davies, Paul. The Cosmic Blueprint. Simon & Schuster, New York, 1988
[22]. Sagan, Carl. Cosmos. Ballantine Books, New York, 1980
By: A. Abd-Allah
Note: All translations of the Qur'an in this article are based on several translators including Yusuf Ali, Marmaduke Pickthal, T. B. Irving, and N. J. Dawood. However, there are some differences which the author felt made the English closer to the Arabic. The author is indebted to Dr. M. Zerroug for reviewing this article.
Reference: al-shia.org

The Prophet's miracle

Prophets and Miracles
Divine Prophets have always been sent with clear signs, so that men might be convinced that they had come from God. For this reason those who have souls like polished mirrors and like clear transparent springs, glistening and pure so that they can recognise these signs commit themselves and have faith; like the magicians of Pharaoh's time who, when they saw the amazing miracle of Musa (A.S.), how the staff became a poisonous serpent, and understood that this was beyond the power of a human being, believed in him and ignored Pharaoh's intimidation.
The disciples of 'Isa (A.S.) also saw with their own eyes the effects of his breath when he breathed into the bodies of the dead, and, by the will of God, raised the dead and gave them life. They were attracted to him, and the souls and spirits of the dead were given everlasting life through faith in 'Isa (A.S.). The Prophet of Islam, who was the last prophet and the best and greatest of them, and who brought an everlasting religion, the perfection of all Divine religions, which will last till the Resurrection, came at the time of his mission with clear signs from God, so that he could be clearly a proof of the legitimacy of His true and perfect religion. * * *
The Qur'an, the everlasting miracle.
Thus it was that the Qur'an, the everlasting document of Islam, appeared on the horizon of human thoughts and ideas. The torch which will always shine at the apex of the great religion of Muhammad (S.A.) at the highest peak of human intellects, as long as the sun rises in the East. It is a brilliant divine sign whose lights, like the rays of the sun, are essential in every era and century and for always, for the continuance of life and the safeguarding of the happiness of all races of humanity. Within this framework and on this foundation, all that is necessary for man's guidance has come. It elucidates the foundations of belief and also the relation of man and God and the ways of strengthening that relation in words with the softness of the clear waters of murmuring brooks, and the firmness of the standing mountains, attractive, eloquent and strong. It describes the social responsibilities of man; it teaches the ways and the rules of social behaviour. It puts an end to class differences and unequal divisions. It wishes the highest in man and his borotherhood and equality and his elevation. * * *
Unequalled Eloquence
Being conversant with vocabulary and having a good knowledge of words at one's fingertips is not such a great difficulty, but their combination and arrangement and harmonisation in a style which has regard for eloquence and fluency, and the construction of phrases with a variety of expression yet in the same way in which they arise in the mind, is the most important skill, and it is something which is not practicable without observing the narrow rules of literary exactness, and using craftsmanship and eloquence. In the art of eloquence, it is said that for eloquence in any speaking or writing it is necessary to observe three principles.
1) Proficiency in words and their meanings.
2) Power of thought and subtlety of eloquence.
3) Power of expression, or skill with the pen.
But it must always be kept in mind that although all the rules and requirements of eloquence may be heeded, no one can claim that his speech or writing is always the best, and that no one can parallel him. However, Allah the Exalted, Whose range of power and knowledge is without limit, has so variously decorated His words in the Qur'an with arrangements and harmonisations of words that no one, be he the most eloquent man on earth, can bring its like. And this is the secret of the eternity of the Qur'an, the |everlasting prophetic document of Hazrat Muhammad (S.A.). The Qur'an, according to the testament of history, shone at that time when the Arabs were at the zenith of their literary development.
The famous poets and great orators, Imra'ul-Qais, Labid, etc., who are still counted as outstanding geniuses in the field of literature, wrote poems and gave orisons which sometimes reached the limits of greatness and which were written on curtains and golden plaques and attached to the wall of the Ka'abah. But, with the rising of the brilliant sun of the Qur'an, all of these lost their light and were eclipsed like the stars. The eloquent Arabs were left bewildered by the eloquence of the Qur'an, which was such that the enemies who were full of hate for Islam and Muhammad (S.A.), who even took to the sword to wipe him and his religion out, were unable, with all their efforts, to find even one short mistake in the language and expression of the Qur'an. * * *
The Enemies' Judgment
It was the time of Hajj. People were coming to Mecca from everywhere, and the Quraysh were uncomfortable from fear that the news of Muhammad's prophethood might have an effect on the new arrivals. So a group of the Quraysh, with Walid at their head, gathered round them and related what unjust things they could say about the Prophet and thus dissuade the new arrivals from meeting him. Then when they were gathered, one of them said, "Let us say this man is soothsayer." "They will not believe us," said Walid, "for his speech is not like the sayings of soothsayers." "Let us say he is mad," someone else volunteered. "No one will accept that," Walid replied, "because his speech and behaviour are not like a lunatic's." "We shall say he is a poet," they said. "This also will not work, because Arabs know all kinds of poetry, and his words are not like a poem." "We shall say he is a sorcerer." "Sorcerers have special methods, like tying knots and blowing on them, and Muhammad does nothing like this." Then Walid himself declared, "I swear by God, the speech of that man has a special sweetness and pleasantness. His speech is like a tree, luxuriant, with steady deep roots and branches which bend down laden with fruit. Thus we can say to people that his speech is bewitched, because it causes separation between father and child, wife and husband, sister and brother.'' To discover the Qur'an's eloquence, and also to find out that it is at the summit of eloquence, non-Arab speakers can turn back to the sayings of those Arabs who were experts in the language of those days and which are recorded in history, and also to present day authors who write on this subject, and to the acknowledgments of those specialists in this branch. Fortunately, from the time of the Prophet (S.A.) till now, all specialists in the art of Arabic eloquence have confessed to the unparalleled eloquence of the Qur'an, and have been overwhelmed in the face of it. For example, the famous contemporary Arab writer Abdulfatah Tabbarah writes: "Arab history tells us of many famous men, knowledgeable in the best poetry and prose, like Ibn al-Muqaffa', Jahiz, ibn al-'Amid, Farazdaq, Bashshar, Abu Nuwas, Abu Tammam and so forth, but all of them have shown humility when faced with the Qur'an, and have of necessity confessed that the great Qur'an is not of the words of man, but a Divine revelation.'' Dr. Taha Husayn, the powerful contemporary Egyptian writer, said: The Qur'an transcends the limits of prose and poetry, because it has special qualities which cannot be found in any poem or prose. So the Qur'an cannot be called poetry or prose, rather it should be said:" It is the Qur'an, that is all." * * *
Harmonisation of its Themes
The speech or writing of a person, however skillful or eloquent he may be, will not be uniform in all conditions and circumstances. In particular, the works which appear in the days of any author's first writings are very different from the works which come after many years and as the result of much experience and repeated practice; the later works are almost always better. But the Qur'an, in that it was sent down in the course of 23 years, and in that it was revealed in various circumstances and like a long flowing river passed over various stoney places, rapids, narrows, valleys and plains, and witnessed many amazing events, it remained forever, like a spring, clear and fresh. The unity and harmony of the themes and the style and expression of the Qur'an are a source for wonder. We see this wonder reach its apex, and notice in the contents of the Qur'an that many different subjects are dealt with, but the style and unity of expression remain constant. It is clear that if someone, when he reached a stage of mastery over a special subject, shows what he can do, he may display brilliance, but if he undertakes something in another branch of which he is not a master, he will not produce any distinctive work. But the Qur'an shines to an amazing degree in every area. * * *
Scientific Wonders in the Qur'an
Although the first and basic aim of the Qur'an, according to what it says itself, is only to guide man to the great road of contentment and prosperity in the life of this world, the world of man, but on the way, in pursuing this aim, it expresses many truths from human knowledge in the natural sciences, in physiology and astronomy. And this is itself another great sign of the wonder of the Qur'an. For the Prophet, according to the definite testimony of history, had never studied, grew up in an environment completely devoid of human knowledge and science (except literature), and was far from the centers of science of those days - Greece, Rome and Iran. Now let us see some indications of this wonder.
1. Meteorology is a very new science. The knowledge of former people about the phenomena of clouds, wind, rain and snow did not go beyond conjecture and what they could see, and, generally speaking, it had an air of imaginativeness and chance and was never established on a scientific basis. Captains and farmers both had their signs and indications for forecasting wind and rain, but they did not really understand these phenomena.
Thus things went on for thousands of years, till, in the 17th century A.D., the thermometer, and in the 19th century the telegraph, and, gradually, other things necessary for meteorology were invented and discovered. In their turn, scientists settled down to research, till, in the first half of the 20th century, the Norwegian scientist, Byerkness, succeeded in discovering the general laws of the formation and movements of clouds and the occurrence of storms and rains in all places. After him, the extent of discoveries in this science, as in other areas, progressed: the rain-bearing properties of clouds, how rain is released from them, the formation and occurrence of hail, matters relating to thunderbolts and thunder and lightening and storms in tropical areas, air currents near the surface of the earth, and other matters, till knowledge reached extensive limits. But fifteen centuries ago, when the Qur'an told about the winds and the rain and other phenomena, it was right when it told us about the latest, newest discoveries of meteorology.
For example, it has now been proved that it is possible for a cloud to reach saturation point but to yield no rain, and for it to be just microscopic particles tiny enough to hang suspended in the air and not to fall and cause rain; however, by means of invisible particles of salt which are blown by the wind from the surface of the sea it will rain. Or, something more important; the humidity in the air gathers round the crystallised snow flakes which lie at high altitudes and which are scattered by the wind. Eventually small drops and the first rain unite together, and, as a result of mixing and colliding together in the wind, they gradually become bigger and bigger, and because of their own relatively heavy weight fall from the massed clouds. This is what the Qur'an made clear 15 centuries ago:
"And We send winds for making fruitful, and then We send down water from the sky, thus We give it unto you to drink of it." (XV;22)
2. Until the invention of the aircraft and the possibility of high-altitude flying, man's knowledge and experience did not encompass needles of ice beyond the clouds. Till then no one knew that mountains of ice-needles existed in the sky above man's heads. But the Qur'an is very clear when it says:
"He sendeth down from the sky, from mountains therein, hail..." (XXIV;43)
3. Living things in other worlds. Man, with the help of his knowledge of space, has set foot on the moon, but the matter of the existence of living things on other worlds has not proceeded beyond theory, and we can say that, from many signs, only it is possible that there are living things such as animals or man on some other planets and stars. But the Qur'an declares unambiguously:
"And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and of what He hath spread out in both of them of animate beings, and for their gathering together when He willeth, He is All-PowerfuL" (XLII;29)
4. In Surah 36, verse 36, we have:
"Glory be to He Who created all the pairs of what the earth produces, and of themselves, and of what they know not."
And in Surah 20, verse 53, we read:
"And He sent down water out of the sky, and therewith We have brought forth various pairs of plants."
In times when man's knowledge did not permit the respected interpreters of the Qur'an to know that plants and growing things came in pairs and couples, they interpreted and observed pairing in classes, species or by form and matter or other philosophical terms which do not exist in the pages of the Qur'an. But today, on the basis of new research, it has been discovered that not only are men and animals created in pairs, but other living things also. One of the most amazing phenomena in the world is the pairing and fertilizations of plants, which is all explained in natural science books. * * *
The Qur'an Makes a Challenge
Not only from the point of view of eloquence, but also, as we have seen, in the fields of human ideas and society, and for all levels of understanding, the Qur'an is a miracle. For rhetoricians it has its eloquence, for philosophers its wisdom, and for scientists its different kinds of knowledge. For all these reasons the Qur'an addresses all people and says: "If you say this book is the word of man, bring its like and its equal."
"Say: 'If man and jinn banded together to produce the like of this Qur'an, they would never produce its like, not though they back one another." (XVII;88)
"Or do they say: 'He has forged it.'? Say: 'Then bring you ten surahs the like of it, forged; and call upon whom you are able, apart from Allah, if you speak truly. ' Then if they do not answer you, know that it has been sent down with Allah's knowledge, and that there is no god but He." (XI;13-14)
"and if you are in doubt about what We have sent down on Our servant, then bring a Surah like it." (II;23)
But we see from the testimony of history from then till now no one has had the courage to do this and produce its like. Of course, during the time of Muhammad (S.A.) and after his death, some Arabs, like Musailemah, Sajah and Ibn Abi'l-'Awja', planned to challenge it but they were not able, and eventually confessed to their incapacity. In the time of the Prophet (S.A.), the enemies of Islam, who used the most awful means in their work, torturing the Muslims, laying economic boycotts on them, plotting to kill Muhammad (S.A.), and so forth, had no one who could do a simple thing like bringing one surah like the Qur'an. In the present day, too, those who spend millions of dollars trying to destroy Islam would certainly attack it in this inexpensive and easy way (bringing a surah like the Qur'an) if they could. If they had been able to do that up to now, it would have been a victory for them and the end of Islam and the news would have been blown on all the trumpets of the world's newsmen.
In the end it is necessary to remind ourselves that if we get to know the Qur'an, or get to know it better and put its great, magnificent and precise project into action, greatness will be ours, and more. The huge edifice of our, the Muslims, greatness collapsed when we stopped putting the commands of this heavenly book into practice. So we fell down, we were satisfied only with the name of Islam. Our departed greatness will return when we leave this crooked way and, starting again, become new Muslims and put the Qur'an at the top of the sights of our hearts and our wisdom, and make it an example for life, as the Prophet said: "When calamities encompass you like the darkness of the night, reach for the Qur'an." (Usul al-Kafi, vol. 2, p. 599)
* * *
(The Roots of Religion, p. 136-146)

Source: www.al-shia.org

Rain in the Holy Koran

By Harun Yahya
Rain is indeed one of the most important factors for life on the earth.
Rain is a prerequisite for the permanence of life in a region. Rain, which carries great importance for all living things including human beings, is mentioned in various verses of the Qur’an where substantial information is given about the formation of rain, its proportion and effects. The fact that it was not possible for any of this information to have been discovered at the time of the revelation of the Qur’an shows that the Qur’an is the word of Allah.
Now, let us examine the information given in the Qur’an about rain.
THE PROPORTION OF RAIN
In the eleventh verse of Surah az-Zukhruf, rain is defined as water send down in due measure. The verse is as follows: “And He who sends down (from time to time) water from the sky in due measure, and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead. Even so will you be raised (from the dead)”. (Surah Zukhruf, 11)
This “measure” mentioned in the verse has to do with a couple of characteristics of rain. First of all, the amount of rain that falls on the earth is always the same. It is estimated that in one second, 16 million tons of water evaporates from the earth. This number is equal to the amount of water that drops on the earth in one second. This means that water continuously circulates in a balanced cycle according to a “measure”. Another measure related with rain is about its falling speed. The minimum altitude of rain clouds is 1200 meters. When dropped from this height, an object having the same weight and size as a rain drop, would continuously accelerate and fall on the ground with a speed of 558 km/h. Certainly, any object that hits the ground with that speed would cause big damage. If rain happened to fall in the same way, all harvested lands would be destroyed, residential areas, houses, and cars would be damaged, people would not be able to walk around without taking necessary precautions. What is more, these calculations are made just for clouds of 1200 meters high, whereas there are also rain clouds at and altitude of 10,000 meters. A rain drop falling from such a height could normally reach a very destructive speed.
But this is not how it works; no matter from how high they fall, average speed of rain drops is only 8-10 km/h when they reach the ground. The reason for this is the special form they take. This special form increases the friction effect of the atmosphere and prevents acceleration when the rain drops reach a certain speed “limit”. (Today parachutes are designed by using this technique.)
This is not all about the “measures” of rain. For instance, in the atmospheric layers where it starts to rain, the temperature may fall so low as –40 C degrees. Despite this, rain drops never turn into ice particles. (This would certainly mean a fatal threat for the living things on the earth).
The reason is that the water in the atmosphere is pure water. As known, pure water hardly freezes even in very low temperatures.
THE FORMATION OF RAIN
How rain forms remained a great mystery for people for a long time. Only after air radar were limited, could it have been possible to learn by with stages rain formed.
The formation of rain takes place in three stages: First, the “raw material” of rain rises up in the air. Later, clouds are formed and lastly, rain drops appear.
These stages are clearly defined in the Qur’an in which precise information was given about the formation of rain centuries in advance; “It is Allah Who sends the Winds, and they raise the Clouds: then does He spread them in the sky as He wills, and break them into fragments, until you see rain drops issue from the midst thereof; then when he has made them reach such of his servants as he wills behold, they do rejoice!”
Now, let us look at the three stages mentioned in the verse;

1ST STAGE
“It is Allah Who sends the winds...” Countless air bubbles formed by the foaming in the oceans continuously burst and cause water particles to be ejected towards the sky. These particles which are rich in salt, are then carried away by winds and move upwards in the atmosphere. These particles which are called aerosols for clouds by collecting around themselves the water vapour – that again ascends from the seas – as tiny drops, by a mechanism called “water trap”.

2ND STAGE
“... and they raise the Clouds: then does He spread them in the sky as He wills, and break them into fragments...” The clouds form from the water vapour that condenses around the salt crystals or the dust particles in the air. Because the water drops in these are very small (with a diameter between 0.01 and 0.02 mm), the clouds are suspended in the air and they spread in the sky. Thus the sky is covered with clouds.

3RD STAGE
“... until you see rain-drops issue from the midst thereof.” Water particles that surround salt crystals and dust particles thicken and form rain drops. So, the drops which become heavier than air depart from the clouds, and start to fall on the ground as rain.
The conclusion to be arrived here is that; Every stage in the formation of rain is told in the verses of the Qur’an. Furthermore, these stages are explained in the order they take place... Just like in many other natural phenomena in the world, it is again the Qur’an that provides the most correct explanation about this phenomena as well, and more, that has announced these facts to people centuries before they were discovered by science.
LIFE GIVEN TO A DEAD LAND
In the Qur’an, a lot of verses call our attention to a particular function of rain, which is “giving life to a dead land”. It is stated in a verse as “... We send down pure water from the sky. That with it We may give life to a dead land, and slake the thirst of things We have created, - cattle and men in great numbers.” (Surah al-Furqan, 48-49) In addition to furnishing the earth with water, rain also has a fertilisation effect.
Rain drops that reach the clouds after being evaporated from the seas, contain certain substances “that will give life” to a dead land. These “life-giving” drops form on the top level of the sea surface which is called the micro layer by biologists. In this layer, which is thinner than one tenth of a millimetre, there are many organic leftovers caused from the pollution of microscopic algaes and zooplanktons. Some of these leftovers select and collect within themselves some elements which are very rare in the sea water such as phosphorus, magnesium, potassium and some heavy metals like copper, zinc, cobalt and lead.
These “fertiliser” laden drops are lifted up into the sky by the winds and after a while they drop on the ground inside the rain drops. Seeds and plants on the earth find numerous metallic salts and elements essential for their growth here in these rain drops. This even is informed I another verse of the Qur’an as follows: “And We send down from the sky rain chartered with blessing, and We produce therewith gardens and grain for harvests.” (Surah Qaf, 9)
Salts that fall with rain are small examples of some fertilisers (calcium, magnesium, potassium etc.) used for increasing fertility. The heavy metals found in these types of aerosols, on the other hand, are other elements that increase fertility in the development and production of plants.
Forests also develop and are fed with the help of these sea-originated aerosols. It this way, 150 million tons of fertiliser falls on the total surface of lands every year. If there was not a natural fertilisation like this, there would be very little vegitation on the earth, and the ecological balance would be damaged.
What is more interesting is that this truth, which could only be discovered by modern science, was informed by Allah in the Qur’an centuries ago.
Reference: al-shia.org

Holy Quran Described by Imam Ali (a.s)

Holy Quran
The True Source of Guidance
Holy Quran Described by Imam Ali (a.s)
"Then Allah sent to him the book as alight whose flames can not be extinguished, a lamp whose gleam does not die, a sea whose depth cannot be sounded, a way whose direction does not mislead, a ray whose light does not darken, a separator ( of good and evil ) whose arguments do not weaken, a clarifier whose foundations cannot be dismantled, a cure which leaves no apprehension for disease, an honour whose supporters are not defeated, and a truth whose helpers are not abandoned. Therefore, it is the mine of belief and its centre, the source of knowledge and its ocean, the plantation of justice and its pools, the foundation stone of Islam and its construction, the valleys of truth and its plains, and ocean which those who draw water cannot empty, springs which those who draw water cannot dry up, a watering place which those who come to take water cannot exhaust, a staging place in moving towards which travelers do not get lost, signs which no treader fails to see and a highland which those who approach it cannot surpass it.
Allah has made it a quencher of the thirst of the learned, a bloom for the hearts of religious jurists, a highway for the ways of the righteous, a cure after which there is no ailment, an effulgence with which there is no darkness, a rope whose grip is strong, a stronghold whose top is invulnerable, and honour for him who loves it, a peace for who enters it, a guidance for him who follows it, an excuse for him who adopts it, an argument for him who argues with it, a witness for him who quarrels with it, a success for him who argues with it, a shield for him who arms himself ( against misguidance ), a knowledge for him who listens carefully, a worthy story for him who relates it and final verdict for him who passes judgement. "
Source : Nahjul-Balaaghah

About the Glorious Qur'an (Characteristics of the Qur'an)

The Teachings of the Qur'an
The Universal Import of the Qur'an
The Qur'an is not directed towards any one particular nation, such as the Arabs, or to a particular sect of Muslims, but to non-Islamic societies as well as the Muslim nation as a whole. There are numerous references to non-believers and idol- worshippers, to the People of the Book (namely, the Jews, or the Tribe of Israel, and the Christians), exhorting each one to strive towards a true understanding of the Qur'an and of Islam. The Qur'an calls each group to Islam by providing proofs and never stipulates that they be of Arab stock. Referring to idol-worshippers, God says:
"if they repent and establish worship and pay the poor-due, then they are your brothers in religion" [IX:11 ] .
Likewise, God talks about the People of the Book, Jews, Christians and we include here the Zoroastrians), without referring to them as Arabs:
Say O People of the Book come to an agreement between us and you: that we shall worship none but God and that we shall ascribe no partners to Him and that none of us shall take others for lords beside God [III:64].
It is true that before Islam spread beyond the Arabian peninsula, Qur'anic injunctions were obviously directed to- wards the Arab nation. From the sixth year after the hijrah (the migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina), when the din of Islam was being propagated beyond the peninsula, there are references which demonstrate that the Qur'an is addressing itself to mankind in general; for example, in VI:19:
"this Qur'an has been revealed to me that I may warn you and whomever it may reach."
and in LXVIII:52 God says:
"it is nothing else but a reminder to the worlds. "
We read too in LXXIV:35-36:
"In truth this is one of the greatest signs, being a warning unto men."
History has amply demonstrated that Islam has been embraced by a number of leading members of other religions, including the idol-worshippers of Mecca, Jews, Christians and by people from diverse communities, such as Salman of Persia, Suhayb from the Roman people, and Bilal of Ethiopia. * * *
The Perfection of the Qur'an
The Qur'an shows man the way to a realization of his goal on earth; it describes this path in the most complete terms. It is a way of correctly viewing the reality of things; a vision - personal, social and cosmic- based on a correct manner of behaviour and a precise method of interaction between men. In XLVI:30 we read that the Qur'an "guides to the truth and a right road, " meaning the road of right belief and correct action. On another occasion, mentioning the Torah and the New Testament, God says:
"We have revealed this Book to you with the Truth, confirming whatever Book was before it, and We keep watch over it" (V:48).
The Qur'an thus affirms the truth of the ways of guidance taught by the earlier prophets. In chapter XLII:13,
"He has ordained for you that religion which He commended to Noah and that which We reveal to you (Muhammad) and that We commended to Abraham, Moses and Jesus," and in chapter XVI:89, '
And We revealed the book to you as an exposition of all things."
Thus we understand from these verses that the Qur'an not only encompasses the meanings and teachings of all divine books revealed before it, but also adds to and completes them. Every thing which a man needs, both in terms of his spiritual and his social life, is contained and explained in the Qur'an. * * *
The Eternal Quality of the Qur'an
The perfection and completeness of the Qur'an prove that its validity is not restricted to a particular time or place, since anything perfect is in need of nothing to complete it. In chapter LXXXVI:13-14 God confirms that the Qur'an is a conclusive word" and not a mere "pleasantry." It contains the purest of teachings concerning belief in life-after-death, together with an exposition of the realities of existence, while at the same time, encompassing the fundamentals of correct human behaviour. Since laws governing transactions between men are directly linked to their beliefs, such a book can obviously not be annulled or changed with the passage of time. As He says in XVII:105:
"We have revealed the Qur'an with Truth and it has descended with the Truth, "
meaning that the revelations and their ongoing validity are inseparable from the Truth. Thus in X:32:
"After the Truth what is there except error, "
and in XLI:41-42:
"In truth it is an unpenetrable book, error may not enter in it from before it or behind it."
In other words the Qur'an repulses, by its own perfection and completeness, any attempt to alter it; and neither now nor later can it be annulled or superseded. Many studies have been made of the permanence of the validity of the laws given in the Qur'an. The reader is advised to consult them if he requires additional knowledge of the subject; to pursue the matter here, (namely, the position of the Qur'an in the lives of Muslims and the manner in which it demonstrates this), would be outside the scope of this book. * * *
The Qur'an as a Self-Contained Proof
The Qur'an, being composed of words and meanings like any other book, explains itself. It does not remain silent when the situation of the text demands proof. Moreover, there is no reason to believe that Qur'anic terms mean anything other than the actual words being used. This means that every man, possessing a certain knowledge of the Arabic language, may dearly understand the meaning of the Qur'an just as he understands any other words written in Arabic.
There are many verses which are directed towards a specific group, such as the Tribe of Israel, or the Believers, or the non-believers and, sometimes, man in general; (they are addressed in phrases such as "O you who disbelieve" or "O people of the Book" or "O tribe of Israel " or "O Mankind ') . The Qur'an discourses with them, offering them proof of its validity or challenging them to produce a book similar to it if they doubt it to be the Word of God. Obviously it makes no sense to address people in terms which they do not understand or to demand that they produce something similar to that which has no meaning for them. In chapter XLVII:24 we read:
"Why do they not reflect upon the Qur'an,"
implying that if it was from other than God, people would have found in it many inconsistencies. It is clearly indicated in the Qur'an that verses which have a subtlety or particularity of meaning demand that the reader reflect upon them to remove any seeming differences of interpretation or incongruities that may appear at first inspection. It also follows that if the verses themselves contained no apparent meaning, there would be no point in reflecting upon them in order to clarify the apparent problem of their interpretation.
There are no indications from other sources, (such as the traditions of the Prophet), that demand a rejection of the outwardly manifest meaning of the Qur'an. Some have argued that one should only refer to the commentaries of the Prophet in elucidating the meanings of the Qur'an. This argument is unacceptable, however, since the basis of the Prophet's commentary and of the Imams of his family must be sought for in the Qur'an. It is difficult to imagine that the validity of the Qur'an is dependent on the commentaries of the Prophet or the Imams of his family. Rather, affirmation of prophecy and imamate must be contained in the Qur'an, which itself is the authentic proof and document of prophecy. This does not, however, contradict the fact that the Prophet and the Imams of his family were responsible for clarifying those details of the shari'ah law (Divinely revealed law) which were not apparent from the actual text of the Qur'an. They were, likewise, entrusted with teaching the knowledge contained in the Book, as seen in the following verse:
And We have revealed to you the Remembrance so that you may explain to mankind that which has been revealed for them (XVI:44).
A similar reflection occurs in chapter LIX:7 where, in reference to the code of practice and law brought by the Prophet to mankind, it states, "And take whatever the messenger gives you. And abstain from whatever he forbids." In chapter IV:64 it says:
"We sent no messenger save that he should be obeyed by God's leave"
and, again, in chapter (LXII:2):
"He it is who has sent among the unlettered ones a messenger of their own, to recite to them His revelations and to make them grow and to teach them the Book and Wisdom."
According to these verses, the Prophet is the appointed explainer of the details of the shari'ah law as well as the teacher of the Qur'an. Moreover, according to the tradition known as thaqalayn, which was authenticated by an uninterrupted chain of narrators, the Prophet has appointed the Imams of his own family as his successors. This is not to deny that others also, by correctly applying the learnings of sincere teachers, may understand the meaning of the Qur'an. * * *
(Allamah Tabatabai, The Qur'an In Islam, p. 25-29)

The Islamic System of Judiciary in the Qur'an

There are a number of noble Qur'anic verses which deal com­prehensively with the `system of the judiciary', and which we must examine closely. In the following sections, these verses will be studied and the results sought for derived from them:
1.The need for the judiciary (al-qada'), which is indispensable for the life of human society.
2.The criterion for judiciary.
3.The rules of conduct for the judge, his qualities, rights, and particular duties.
4.The duty of the litigants in observing the criteria specified by none other than revelation and in refraining from opposition to and questioning what has originated from the Source of the judiciary.
5.Matters concerning judiciary, such as testimony and the duties of the witness.
We will discuss these important issues, and study the Qur'anic view of them.
1. The Need for Judiciary:
Man is a social creature. He is unable to dissociate himself com­pletely from others and live in isolation and seclusion. He is also unable to live in complete harmony with others, since each person has his own particular ideas, qualities, and conduct. to which his nature inclines, which characterize him without anyone else sharing them either partly or wholly. If man is unable to live alone and remain in absolute soli­tariness, nor able to live in complete harmony with others, then dif­ferences will undoubtedly appear between individuals and groups. There will be strife between them and disputes will take place about particular interests, with each one having an eye out for his own in­terests. If there were no general rules to which people could take recourse, and no criteria by which truth could be distinguished from falsehood, social order would be disrupted, human society would break down, and public affairs would be in disarray. The noble Qur'anic verses testify to this. As regards the first point, i.e., man's nature as a social creature, it is indicated by the statement of God, the Exalted:

O mankind, We have created you male and female, and appointed you races and tribes, that you may know one another. (49:13)

If man was not social by nature and individuals were able to live by themselves, there would be no need of races and tribes, since they would not require the mutual acquaintance (al-ta`aruf) which depends on social ties.

Regarding the second point, i.e., the inevitability of conflict, God, the Exalted, says:

Had thy Lord willed, He would have made mankind one nation; but they continue in their differences, excepting those on whom Thy Lord has mercy. (11:118-119)

God's responsibility is to show the way; and some do swerve from it. If He willed, He would have guided you all together. (16:9)

It is not correct to make them `one nation', because that compulsion would be inconsistent with human responsibility and would also be inconsistent with voluntary growth and development. In fact, it would be inconsistent with wisdom as well, since differences on the whole are beneficial, sacred and commendable. What is reprehensible is the difference that arises even after distinguishing of rectitude from error and the clarification of truth. These two types of differences have been indicated by God, the Exalted:

The people were one nation; then God sent forth the prophets, good tidings to bear and warning, and He sent down with them the Book with the truth, that He might decide between the people touching their differences; and only those who had been given it were at variance upon it after the clear signs had come to them, being insolent one to another; then God guided those who believed to the truth, touching which they were at variance, by His leave; and God guides whomsoever He will to a straight path. (2:213)

It is inferred from the first part of the verse that primitive man was simple in his beliefs, with a sound natural disposition (fitrah) and far from deviation and desire (haws), even though he would differ from others of his kind on certain matters. Differences in matters such as these were inevitable in his life's course since man had been created for perfection, and these formed part of - the stages of his growth. In order to settle these differences and elucidate the truth during conflict, Allah, the Exalted, revealed the Book accompanied by the truth, which moved along with it. On the elucidation and clarification of the truth, the people were divided into two groups-some of them believed and followed what the Book had brought, and others did not believe through insolence and hostility. This is the disagreement con­cerning faith and conviction, and it is a reprehensible disagreement. Regarding the third point the necessity of determining the general rule to resolve disagreements-that is indicated by the state­ment of God, the Exalted:

Nay, but they cried lies to the truth when it came to them, and so they are in a matter perplexing. (50:5)

Almighty censures them for the disorder of their state. They have fallen into confusion by their denial of the truth, and He enjoins them to resort to the truth, avoid creating confusion, and maintain the correct order. Islam has been concerned with removing these differences through training, educating, discipline, and purification. It has urged adherence to `the strong rope' of Allah and abstention from conflict which would result in social discord. It has brought about brotherhood '- among the believers, and made them "merciful one to another" even though they are "hard against the unbelievers" (48:29). It has described the believers as being "a building well-compacted" (61:4) in confrontation with untruth, and as "friends one of the other; they bid to honour and forbid dishonour" (9:71). It has called them to "enter the peace, all of you" (2:208), and not to be separated from the circle of Islam even by an inch, since "one isolated from the community is, for Satan, as the isolated sheep is for the wolf." It has praised those who ask the forgiveness of Allah, the Exalted, for themselves and their brothers who had preceded them in the faith, and told them to call on God, the Exalted, not to put into their hearts "any rancour towards those who believe" (59:10). Apart from these, there are other lofty qualities necessary for removing differences and for preventing their development in the hearts, or their becoming apparent in their be­haviour, since people have been taught that Allah knows what they hide in themselves and what they disclose through their conduct.

In order to preserve the social order and safeguard social unity, disagreements are to be removed by referring them to the judgment of Allah and His Messenger, by appointing Him as arbitrator in their disputes, and by not turning away from Him to another, since His judgment is the sole legal recourse to settle disputes and solve dif­ferences, and no one has a choice in what Allah and His Messenger have ruled. The judiciary is the guarantee for applying a just system of regulations and preventing disarray in social affairs. It requires the estab­lishment of everything in its proper place, the returning of every right to its owner, and everyone obtaining his due. That is why the "pro­position" is termed "qadiyyah"; because as along as the predicate and its judgment as regards the subject has not been ascertained and the subject's judgment has not been determined in relation to the predicate, either negatively or positively, one is hesitant and uncertain until rightness is distinguished from error and the sound from the unsound. When the intellect judges a particular matter and gives a specific verdict, then the peace of mind is achieved and doubts end. Thereat the matter with regard to its conceived terms is described as qadiyyah, and the mental form with regard to its conceived terms is called judgment (tasdiq).
2. The Criterion for the Judiciary:
It has been explained in the previous section that judiciary is necessary for safeguarding social system and to curb unruly behaviour. In this section we will discuss its criterion. It may appear at first that the human intellect can independently discover these rules and that its range covers what the thinking man attains through his judgment without resorting to heavenly scriptures and, in fact, without needing them at all. However, a deep study of the evidence for the necessity of judiciary shows that the human intellect is insufficient for it and is incapable of determining the criterion for judiciary and defining its scope. This is because the views of one person-as has been mentioned­ are not all in agreement with those of other people. Each person considers his ideas to be right and regards other people's ideas as misconceptions. He imagines that hg views are appropriate and would benefit mankind, while the ideas of others are inadequate and harmful. Thus ensue the intellectual arguments and the academic debates and discussions.

In addition to this, everyone is naturally disposed to put one's interests and those of one's group and family above those of others, regarding them to be better entitled than others. This would have great consequences for the method of laying down and applying the law.

The following conclusions can be derived from the above dis­cussion.

The need to remove disagreements and solve disputes makes the existence of a judiciary necessary. The human intellect is not adequate to provide felicity to human society on its own. On the contrary, it is the light that illuminates the way-the way indicated by divine revela­tion-and guides those who follow it to the desired goal. If the human mind-because of its intellectual inadequacy and its being infested by questionable motives-is inadequate in determining the criterion for judiciary, then an inquiry should be made into what the perfect stand­ard for judgment between people should be. This may be done by looking at two points:

Firstly, the inability of human thought and its failure to offer the judicial standard. Secondly, the genius of divine revelation and its competence in determining the judicial system, since it has been derived from the Unseen and transcends the natural laws, as we will see, God willing.

The first point is indicated by the statement of God; the Exalted:

...Messengers bearing good tidings, and warning, so that mankind might have no argument against God, after the Messengers; God is All-mighty, All-wise. (4:165)

This indicates that the intellect on its own is inadequate for attain­ing perfection and guidance to the most correct path. For were it sufficient, the argument for the adequacy of the intellect and reliance on its guidance would be justified. If people committed sins and per. formed offences, the argument of Allah against them would be estab­lished (for the intellect which had been given them had forbidden them from it, so why did they not follow it but go against it?) It would then be right for them to be punished for their sins and evil deeds. However, the noble Qur'an does not support or sanction punishment before sending Messengers. God, the Exalted, has said:

We never chastise until We send forth a Messenger. (17:15)

Had we destroyed them with a chastisement aforetime, they would have said, `Our Lord, why didst Thou not send us a Messenger, so that we might have followed Thy signs before we were humiliated and degraded?' (20:134)

This proves that it is not God's practice to chastise His creatures before dispatching Messengers, nor to humiliate, disgrace, and destroy through punishment a people before sending prophets to them. Were it not so, these creatures would protest to God that the punishment was carried out before the proof was completed. The weakness of human thought and the fact that man is not aware of all beneficial and harmful con­sequences of his acts, even in matters closest to him, is pointed out in the statement of God, the Exalted, when explaining the distribution of inheritance and appointing specific shares to each heir:

You know not which out of them is nearer in profit to you. (4:11)

When explaining the necessity of belief in revelation and the imper­missibility of turning away from it, God, the Exalted, says:

So when their Messengers brought them the clear signs, they rejoiced in what knowledge they had, and were encompassed by what they mocked at. (40:83)

This indicates that man's knowledge does not guarantee him happiness, otherwise it would not be wrong on his part to be content with it. However, it is not so because he is incapable of attaining through it what he needs. Thus it is reprehensible for man to confine himself to his own knowledge and turn away from what the prophets have brought. In the following statement, God, the Exalted, indicates that man is unable to establish justice and determine the rules of a just judiciary with the sole means of the intellect that has been given him:

Indeed we sent Our Messengers with the clear signs, and We sent down with them the Book and the Balance so that men might uphold justice. And We sent down iron, wherein is great might, and many uses for men, and so that God might know who helps Him, and His Messengers, in the Unseen. Surely God is All-Strong, All-Mighty. (57:25)

This indicates that the aim of sending the Messengers with clear signs and sending the scriptures with them was that the people should uphold justice. If man were able to achieve justice through his intel­lect and without the need for revelation, there would have been no need for it. The reason for man's being unable to define the standard for the judiciary is that there lie before him various worlds and higher and lower levels and degrees of existence. He moves from one world to another and from one level to another and he is immortal and imperish­able. Since he moves from one abode to another, he must seek per­fection through a power that does not cease or perish, and which does not harm his world or his Hereafter. Obviously, determining such a power requires a comprehensive knowledge of the true nature of man and what makes him ascend to the highest stages or brings him down to the lowest levels. How does that knowledge compare with the little knowledge that has been given man, who does not have much understanding of what will benefit or harm him?

The second point-the capacity of divine revelation in explaining the judicial system-is indicated by several Qur'anic verses.

Whoso judges not according to what God has sent down-they are the un­believers. (5:44)

Whoso judges not according to what God has sent down-they are the evil­doers. (5:45)

Whosoever judges not according to what God has sent down-they are the ungodly. (5:47)

The difference between unbelief (kufr) and the other contingent evils, as regards the judiciary, will be explained. Among them is the statement of God, the Exalted:

Is it the judgment of pagandom then that they are seeking? Yet who is fairer in judgment than God, for a people having conviction? (5:50)

These verses suggest that judgment is either the judgment of Allah, determined by revelation, or the judgment of pagandom (jahiliyyah). The latter includes every judgment and law followed by men, whether it is described as civilized or not and whether it is accepted or rejected by all people or some of them. This is because there is nothing after truth except falsehood, and following that which is not from Allah, the Exalted, necessitates moving away from the straight path which leads to paradise. There are only two paths, whatever they may be called, and no third one: the path of Allah, guiding to the straightway, and the path of the false god (taghut) leading down into the deep abyss of perdition. Furthermore, God, the Exalted, says:

And whatever you are at variance on, the judgment thereof belongs to God. That then is God, my Lord; in Him I have put my trust, and to Him I turn penitent. (42:10)

The verse indicates that the sole recourse for settling differences is judgment of Allah, and no other, whether these differences concern rights, property or some other matter. God, the Exalted, says:

So judge between them according to what God has sent down, and do not follow their inclinations to forsake the truth that has come to thee. (5:48)

This judgment is none other than that which has been revealed by Allah. There are other verses which restrict the criterion for judiciary to divine revelation, indicating that everything besides that is ignorance and error, that anything other than the law (Din) of Allah is not accept­able and that any other path will not lead to the pleasure of Allah and paradise. On the contrary, it will lead to Allah's displeasure and "the abode of ruin-Gehenna, wherein they are roasted; an evil establish­ment!" (14:28-9), for it is not a path which guides to the right goal. That is why the Mighty and Sublime has addressed those who have turned away from the revelation and from the Messenger, saying:

Where then are you going? It is naught but a Reminder unto all beings. (81:26-27)

The meaning of the term knowledge (`ilm) becomes clear when God the Exalted, urges that we should not say what we do not know and that we should not deny what we do not know. He emphasizes that affirma­tion and denial must be through knowledge, and confirmation and rejection through understanding. He says of those who disbelieve without knowledge:

No; but they cried lies to that whereof they comprehended not the knowl­edge, and whose interpretation had not yet come to them. (10:39)

Has not the compact of the Book been taken touching them, that they should say concerning God nothing but the truth? (7:169)

This verse urges one to restrict oneself to speaking only through knowl­edge and affirming only through understanding. Similarly, God, the Exalted, also says:

And pursue not that thou hast no knowledge of; the hearing, the sight, the heart-all of those shall be questioned of (17: 36)

The knowledge mentioned in these and other similar verses refers to that which relates to happiness and a good life and is in keeping with the revelation of God, the Exalted, to His Messenger. It is immune from the evils of ignorance, forgetfulness; and tyranny, and it is rightly the object of hope and the sole basis for judiciary. As for the intellect, it is independent in matters of doctrine (usul al-Din) and its guidance makes possible a knowledge of Allah, the Exalted, and faith in Him. Similarly, it facilitates a knowledge of the Messenger and the necessity of his infallibility and freedom from sin and error in delivering the message, and a knowledge of the doctrine of the Hereafter and man's resurrection with his soul and body for the Judgment. Despite this, however, the intellect is incapable of grasping many matters relating to these important principles, and is also incapable of understanding the benefits and harms latent in actions, laws, and customs. Therefore, it is always in need of the guidance of revelation in circumstances that come upon it and in need of its instructions on what it cannot attain by itself. God, the Exalted, says:

...and to teach you that you knew not. (2:151)

To conclude, the criterion of the judiciary is the criterion which Allah has sent down through revelation and laid down for the people in order that they may establish justice and equity amongst themselves.
3. The Rules of Conduct for the Judge:

It has been made clear that the judiciary is necessary to protect human society and that its criterion is nothing other than revelation. In this section, we wish to discuss its external realization and how it can exist in the desirable form that will afford the application of divine justice derived from revelation. The administration of justice in human society is possible through a judge who has knowledge of the divine criterion for judiciary and who believes in it and acts in conformity with it. If knowledge, faith, and action did not exist together, the criterion itself would not have any effect, for it would be like a lamp in the hand of a blind person who can neither benefit from it himself nor benefit others. He would not be safe from stumbling and the lamp would either break or be extinguished. Thus, the practising judge has to be a just scholar (`alim `adil).

Man is controlled by three important faculties from which springs felicity or misery. They are: his intellect (`aql), through which he grasps matters; his Desire (shahwah), through which he seeks things and wants them for himself; and his Anger (ghadab), through which he repels from himself what he dislikes. Knowledge and justice must inform these three faculties, so that the judge may not deviate in judgment or depart from the path of truth. His intellect should be directed towards acquiring and teaching that which has been brought by the prophets, so that desires (ahwd') do not affect him. There is no room for personal judgment (ray) in' religion, and whoever rules through his personal judgment perishes. He who abandons the Book of Allah, the Exalted, and the Sunnah of His Prophet, has disbelieved; he who relies on him­self when faced with a problem is led astray and he who relies on his judgment in ambiguous matters is as one who has made himself his own leader (imam).

Justice should inform his Desire, and he should not rule out of a liking for a particular matter or a specific person. Nor should he rule out of a desire for wealth, status, or position, or for other reasons springing from vain urges. His Anger should be temperate, and he should not rule out of hatred for a matter or hostility to a person, or out of fear of a threat or intimidation, or for any other reason related to anger, hatred, and the like. The person who is balanced in his intellect through the teaching of the divine revelation and his faith in it, and is balanced in his. Desire and Anger-since his love and hatred are in the way of Allah, the Exalted-such a person is suitable for judgment between people.

Concerning self-discipline, particularly in relation to judiciary, the Noble Qur'an deals with the regulation of the three above-men­tioned faculties.

Firstly, it refers to the moderation (ta'dil, a derivative of `adl, justice; ta'dil means informing something with justice) of the intellect through the scriptural instruction and teachings of the prophets, peace be upon them. He who does not judge according to what Allah has revealed, is a disbeliever. This has been mentioned in the previous section, so we will not repeat it.

Secondly, it refers to the ta`dil of love. God. the Exalted, says:

O believers, be you securers of justice, witnesses for God, even though it be against yourselves, or your parents and kinsmen .... (4:135)

God, the Exalted, has commanded the believer to be a `securer of justice', which is more important than upholding justice. He has com­manded that his testimony should be for God, even though it may be against himself, his parents, or his kinsmen, so that his love for him­self or his kinsmen does not prevent him from establishing justice or bearing witness for God. If he was required to make an admission, against himself; he should do so. If the establishment of truth calls for testify­ing against his nearest relatives, he should not hold back from it. Then his Desire would be just, and his love would be for God, and he would be attracted towards God. He would not desire anything that God was not pleased with, nor be tempted by something God disliked. He would not desire an unjust thing or incline towards vanity, and it would not be possible to influence or dominate him through his Desire. Thirdly, it refers to the ta`dil of Anger. As God, the Exalted, says:

O believers, be you securers of justice, witnesses for God. Let not detesta­tion for a people move you not to be equitable; be equitable-that is nearer to god fearing. And fear God; surely God is aware of the things you do. (5:8)

In this verse, God, the Exalted, commands the faithful to be `securers of justice' for God and witnesses for justice. Like the previous verse this one is also concerned with justice and equity. God, the Exalted, also warns the believer - lest hatred of a people and enmity to them should lead him to abandon justice and lest hatred should influence his judgment. The judge must be-guided by the laws of God, the Exalted, so that his anger is only for the sake of God, and his hatred for a people must not cause him an unjust ruling. If the faculty of his `Anger' is regulated in this way, he will have no fear of anyone other than Allah and it will not be possible to influence him through the arousal of his `Anger'.

When man attains this kind of control over the self, and is pos­sessed of knowledge and justice, and his intellectual and behavioural faculties have been moderated, then it is in order for him to apply himself to adjudication and occupy the position held by none other than the prophet or his authorized trustee (wasi) for even if he is neither a prophet nor authorized as a trustee through a special trustee­ship (wisayah) as in the case of the Infallible Imams, peace be upon them-he is a trustee through a general trusteeship in accordance with the texts of appointment (nasb).

It is also proper that this judge should pave judgment through his knowledge, since all dicta are proved through knowledge whereas knowledge is a proof in itself. So if a just judge has knowledge of the truth, then he should judge according to his knowledge, so as to comply with the verses which command ruling with justice. In fact, if the evidence produced is contrary to his knowledge or the denier takes an oath asserting something contrary to his knowledge, he should refrain from judgment or refer the case, for example, to another judge. It is not permissible for him to rule contrary to his knowledge, even if the evidence or the oath is acceptable.

It is not right that his judgment should be revoked or refuted, since this would be like refuting the Infallible Imam, which in turn would be similar to refuting God, the Exalted. That would actually amount to unbelief and practically to polytheism (shirk), though it may not involve creedal unbelief, because creedal unbelief concerns the outright denial of one of the fundamental doctrines of religion.

One of the most important rules of conduct for the judge is to be on guard against bribery when passing judgment, because that amounts to unlawful gain, unfaithful conduct and transgression and has been forbidden by the noble Qur'an:

Consume not your goods between you in vanity; neither proffer it to the judges, that you may sinfully consume a portion of other men's goods, and that wittingly. (2:188)

The Qur'an has forbidden the giving of money to judges in the hope of extracting an unjust judgment from them. The term idla' (proffering) means sending a bucket down into the well to bring out water from its depths. It should be noted that the use of this word here means that bribery is like a bucket sent down into the bosom of the judge to ex­tract injustice and wrong from his wicked heart. The inward must be pure and the heart unblemished, so that it does not incline towards wealth and is not influenced by coercion. The Qur'an has forbidden these two qualities in the following verse:

So fear not men, but fear you Me; and sell not My signs for a little price. (5:44)

The first part of the verse is a prohibition against misplaced fear, as a regulation of the faculty of Anger, and the second is a prohibition against misplaced attraction, as a regulation of the faculty of Desire, along with the suggestion that the whole world is of little worth. If the unjust judge were to take the whole world for making a wrong judgment, he would have sold the judgment of Allah for a `little price', since what is transitory is of little value however much it may appear to be. The bribery that has been forbidden is not only of the pecuniary kind. On the contary, it also includes advantages and benefits and may be a particular act performed by the briber, or words of praise, or a display of his respect and reverence for the judge. All these are forbidden, for the term `bribe' is applicable to them and the, rule concerning it applies to them. [1] In the `Rules of Conduct for Litigants' we will mention that giving and receiving bribe are both unlawful.

It is apparent from what has been previously mentioned that it is necessary for the judge to be on guard against becoming an advocate for the treacherous person, whether it is by misplaced inclination or repulsion. God, the Exalted, says:

Surely We have sent down to thee the Book with the truth, so that thou mayest judge between the people by that God has shown thee. So be not an advocate for the traitors. (4:105)

The judge has been forbidden to be an advocate for the traitor and defend him, for the traitor only deceives himself, and so is not liked by Allah, the Exalted. The judge must be on his guard against inclin­ing towards him, defending him, driving away the oppressed person, and standing by the oppressor.

Conclusion

The aim of the judiciary is that the judge should possess the greatest impartiality, emanating through wisdom in the intellectual faculty, through generosity and integrity in the faculty of Desire, and through courage in the faculty of Anger, so that the judiciary becomes free from the pollution of injustice, vanity, and falsehood, and achieves un­equalled good. One of the rules of judiciary is that the judge should not hasten with judgment before complete investigation and questioning of the litigants. This is indicated by the statement of God, the Exalted:

Behold, this my brother has ninety-nine ewes, and I have one ewe. Yet he says, "Give her into my charge"; and he has overcome me in the argument.' Said he, `Assuredly he has wronged thee in asking for thy ewe in addition to his sheep; and indeed many partners do injury one against the other, save those who believe, and do deeds of righteousness-and how few they are!' And David thought that We had only tried him; therefore he sought for­giveness of his Lord, and he fell down, bowing, and he repented. (38:23-24)

This verse indicates that it is essential to abandon haste in identifying the culprit and the offence, even though it is in compliance with the presumption of the soundness of the case. There is nothing in the verse to indicate criticism in relation to the conduct of the Prophet David, since this episode is narrated in the Surat Sad between two com­mendations of Dawud, peace be upon him. Before the above-mentioned verse, God, the Exalted, says:

And We gave him wisdom and speech decisive. (38: 26)

After the verses 23-24, God the Exalted says:

David, behold, We have appointed thee a viceroy in the earth; therefore judge between men justly. (38:26)

Undoubtedly, a prophet whom Allah has given `wisdom and speech decisive' and whom He has made a viceroy in the earth, commanding him to judge between men justly, does not hasten in judgment before .decisively completing a proper investigation. Thus it is certain that what issued from Dawud, peace be upon him, was only mentioned as a presumption and a hypothesis, i.e. it is an injustice to presume the veracity of a hypothetical case. Therefore, the judge must abandon haste in such a decision as well, and must treat both the litigants equal­ly in looking at them and speaking to them. He should know that his tongue is between two flames of fire, and that his tongue is behind his heart; so if it is right for him he should speak, otherwise he should hold back. If the judge has not learned to conduct himself in accord­ance with the Divine norms, his judgment would have no significance, even if it were correct; since two matters have to be taker. into account in adjudication; firstly, the actual good (al-husn al-fi'li), which is that the judgment should be in accordance with the truth; secondly, the efficient good (al-husn al-fa`ili), which is that the judgment should issue from a pure soul and a heart with certain faith, and without fear of anyone's reproach. `The judges are of four kinds, three of which belong in the fire and one in heaven. [2] This kind is the one who judges rightly and knows that it is right.
4. The Rules of Conduct for the Litigants:

It has been demonstrated that the criterion for judiciary is nothing other than Divine revelation, and that the sole authority in settling disputes is someone learned in the revelation, who believes in it and possesses the attributes that have made him fit for adjudication. It is essential that he should be referred to in a dispute, and turning away from him to refer to someone else is turning from truth to falsehood. It is `far error' as God, the Exalted, has said:

Hast thou not regarded those who assert that they believe in what has been sent down to thee and what was sent down before thee, desiring to take their disputes to tyrants (taghut), yet they had been commanded to dis­believe in them? But Satan desires to lead them astray into far error (4:60).

It is not for a believer to seek the judgment of one in whom he has been commanded to disbelieve. It is also not for an oppressor (taghut) to appoint himself to judgment. Man will not attain the degree of faith until he makes the Messenger of Allah the judge, choosing him as the arbiter, as Allah, the Exalted, had chosen him, referring to him in his disputes with others, and then not finding any objection or reserva­tion in himself against what the Messenger has ruled, whether it is for or against him, since a believer is one who submits his affair to Allah, the Exalted:

But no, by thy Lord! they will not believe till they make thee the judge regarding the disagreement between them and then find in themselves no impediment touching thy verdict, but surrender in full submission. (4:65)

The noble verse clearly explains the duty of the litigants in a disagree­ment or dispute, and urges taking recourse to the Messenger and no other person. It also urges complete submission to his judgment when an appeal is made to him--may blessings of Allah on him and his family-for faith is the tranquillity and peace of the soul, and is not achieved except through the submission of both the heart and the action of bodily members.

The Noble Qur'an has described as wrongdoing (zulm) the act of one who does not seek the judgment of God and His Messenger except if he is in the right. Similarly it has described as `success' the act of one who complies and is obedient when called to Allah and his Messenger so that judgment may be made between him and his adversary. The Almighty says:

When they are called to God and His Messenger that he may judge between them, lo, a party of them swerve aside; but if they are in the right, they will come to him submissively. What, is there sickness in their hearts, or are they in doubt, or do they fear that God may be unjust towards them and His Messenger? Nay, but those-they are the wrongdoers. (24:48-50)

This indicates that turning away from the judgment of the Messenger only arises from wrongdoing. God, the Exalted, also says:

All that the believers say, when they are called to God and His Messenger, that he may judge between them, is that they say, `We hear, and we obey'; those-they are the successful. (24:51)

This indicates that success requires submission to Allah and His Mes­senger. It means that the believer pledges allegiance to Allah and His Messenger, and the requirement of allegiance is that he `sell' himself and all the wealth and family he possesses to Allah and His Messenger. In this way, he neither owns his ownself nor anything attached to him, since he has sold it all to Allah and His Messenger, and it is not for him to act independently concerning himself or what appertains to him, except with the approval of Allah and His Messenger. There­fore Allah, the Exalted, has said:

It is not for any believer, man or woman, when God and His Messenger have decreed a matter, to have the choice in the affair. Whooever disobeys God and His Messenger has gone astray into manifest error. (33:36)

Just as the believer does not have a choice in seeking the judgment of Allah and His Messenger, since it is incumbent on him, similarly, he does not have a choice in his affair after their judgment has been passed against him. Not submitting to their judgment is disobedience and straying from the right path. In addition, the Messenger was sent with the Book to judge between the people with the truth, and this judgment was made obligatory on him, may benediction of God be on him and his family. Thus, referring to him and accepting his judgment became incumbent. If it were not so, then, on the one hand, judging between the people with the truth would not have been made obliga­tory on the Messenger, and on the other hand, it would not have been incumbent on the people to seek the judgment of the Messenger and abstain from determining it among themselves.

Note: Firstly, it should be noted that taking recourse to the taghut is disobedience, and taking wealth by virtue of his judgment is unlawful gain, even though what has been taken may be lawful. This is if the disputed wealth consists of a particular property or article. As regards debt, it is doubtful whether the same rule applies to it. Details of this should be sought from books on jurisprudence.

Secondly, adjudication is only for the settlement of disputes, and has no effect in altering facts, whatever they may be. When someone makes a false claim and supports it with a false witness, or denies a truth and takes a false oath, and that is hidden from the judge, the lat­ter will rule according to the false evidence or oath and contrary to the facts. It is incumbent on everyone who has knowledge of it to be on his guard against it, for it is a piece of fire. The details of it are also in legal books.
5. The Rules of Conduct for the Witness:

Judgment has a particular basis on which the judge relies when giving his judgment. If it is strong, then the ruling is correct and in keeping with the facts, not otherwise. Like the judge, the witness must be knowledgeable and just. The difference between the two is that the judge must have a knowledge of the Divine law, while the witness must have knowledge of the matter that has been witnessed. He must comply with two points: firstly, he must have been present at the event in order to have witnessed it himself; secondly, he must be present in the court to report it (2:282) without alteration or evasion. He must not avoid, conceal, or alter testimony, because "the one who conceals it, his heart is sinful; and God has knowledge of the things you do" (2:28). Allah, the Exalted, says:

O believers, be you securers of justice, witnesses for God, even though it be against yourselves, or your parents and kinsmen, whether the man be rich or poor; God stands closer to you than either of the two. Then follow not desire, so as to swerve; for if you twist or turn, God is aware of the things you do. (4:135)

The conclusion of this noble verse is that no personal, communal or economic factor should interfere with the testimony, not even the love of oneself or of parents or kinsmen. Similarly, economic factors, such as prosperity or poverty, should not influence the mode of giving witness or abstention from it. That is because Allah, the Exalted, is aware of the actions of His servants and witness to them, whatever they may be. Whoever knows that protects himself against lapses and humiliation.

The verse also shows that kinship is no hindrance to acceptance of the evidence of one of the relatives, even if it is the child's against the father. The details concerning the verse can be found in the books on law.

6. The Rules of Conduct for Judgment Between the People of the Book:

The two litigants may be Muslims, or Jews or Christians, or of differing religions. If the two litigants are Muslims, the judge will rule between them only in accordance with Islam. If they are Jews or Christians, then the judge has the choice of ruling between them according to Islam, or referring them to special courts of their religious communities so that they may be judged according to them. Allah, the Exalted,
says:

If they come to thee, judge thou between them, or turn away from them; if thou turnest away from them, they will hurt thee nothing; and if thou judgest, judge justly between them; God loves the just. (5:42)

This noble verse expressly suggests the choice between the two alter­natives, and it is not contradicted by the literal meaning (zahir) of another text stipulating judgment between them in accordance with Islam, because, firstly, an express text (nass) enjoys precedence over the literal meaning (zahir) and also because the choice between the two alternatives is also in accordance with Islam. Thus there is no room for thinking that this verse is abrogated by the following one:

So judge between them according to what God has sent down, and do not follow their caprices. (5:48)

There is no contradiction between the nass allowing choice and the zahir specifying judgment in accordance with Islam. In addition, the choice has also been revealed by Allah, the Exalted. As regards the elaboration of the opinion which says that when the two litigants are from different religious communities, it is permissible for a Muslim judge to rule according to their laws, Imam `Ali, peace be upon him, "Were the cushion folded for me, I would judge between the people of the Injil in accordance with their Injil...". Details on the topic can be found in legal works.

Some of our Imami legists [3] have supported the necessity of ruling between the two parties in accordance with Islam, since referring them back to one of the religious communities would cause fitnah. Our teacher, al-'Imam al-Khumayni, has ruled that if a dhimmi man committed adultery with a dhimmi woman, or if one dhimmi committed sodomy with another, the Islamic punishment (hadd) should be enforced. [4]

Uncommon Judicial Rulings:

1. It has been stipulated in fiqh that adjudication has certain criteria which the judge may not violate. These include: evidence or oath, the oath given on weak and inconclusive evidence (qasamah in cases of lawth), the knowledge of the judge, or admission, where the judge u not able to give a positive or negative judgment violating them.

He may resort to drawing lots only when there is a conflict of rights, not in order to determine and reveal the ruling but to make a division and in cases which are similarly doubtful. The matter is elaborated in legal works. It ha; been pointed out that drawing lots has a basis in the Noble Qur'an, and to mention it here is not without benefit. God, the Exalted, has said:

For thou wast not with them, when they were casting quills which of them should have charge of Mary; thou wart not with them, when they were disputing. (3:44)

...And cast lots, and he was of the rebutted. (37:141)

The last verse means that Jonah was a loser in the casting of lots when his arrow appeared, and he was thrown into the sea and swallowed by the whale. That has no connection with adjudication because of the general character of the act of drawing lots. Nevertheless, it has some relation to it and so must be indicated here.

1. The difference between the rulings of Dawud (A) and Sulayman (A) on tillage-"when the sheep of the people strayed there" (21:78)­may come to one's mind Sometimes their difference is attributed to ijtihad, and at other times to the revelation to Sulayman which abro­gated the ruling of Dawud.

I say: With regard to Divine judgment, there is no scope for a prophet to perform ijtihad according to personal judgment and reflec­tion. In addition, God, the Exalted, has said:

And We made Sulayman to understand it. (21:79)

This suggests that the `understanding' was the result of Divine inspira­tion. Similarly, that which was given to Dawud, peace be upon him, was from God, the Mighty and Sublime, since God gave him "wisdom and speech decisive (fasl al-khitab)." (38:20). It is said that by fasl al khitab is meant the rule that evidence lies with the claimant and oath upon the denier. As for the abrogation, it has perhaps not been estab­lished because of the possibility of both the judgments being correct­ though Sulayman's ruling was more beneficial and proper with regard to the litigants.

Endnotes
[1]. Al-Tabataba'i, al-`Urwat al-wuthqa, p.3.

[2]. Al-Wasa'il, Chapter 4, "The Qualities of a Judge."

[3]. Al-Suyuti, Kanz al-`irfan, ii, 378.

[4]. Tahrir al-Wasi'lah, ii, 464, 470, 506, 507.
Reference: al-shia.org

Special Logic of the Holy Qur'an Regarding the Question of Human Compulsion and Liberty

Special Logic of the Holy Qur'an Regarding the Question of Human Compulsion and Liberty
by Martyr Ayatullah Murtada Mutahhari
We previously said that the Muslim theologians started discussing and analyzing the question of human compulsion and liberty in the second half of the first century of the Hijri era. This question is the oldest scholastic problem. Somehow the scholastic theologians could not analyze the question correctly with the result that they deviated from the right path. Some of them supported the theory of predestination and others that of absolute human liberty. To the Muslim masses a belief in destiny meant predestination. They considered belief in human liberty to be tantamount to the negation of destiny. A simultaneous belief in destiny and liberty, though it was acceptable to the clear conscience of the early Muslims, lost its popularity once it took on a philosophical colour. Even now after a lapse of 14 centuries it does not find favour with the Muslim masses, though the Holy Qur’an, the hadiths of the Holy Prophet and the sayings of the Holy Imams clearly say that everything is governed by the destiny ordained by Allah, and at the same time describe man as an effective factor in making or marring his fortune. They hold him responsible for all his actions. We have in the foregoing quoted some of the Qur’anic verses dealing with these points. As we have pointed out, the predestinarians have tried to explain away the verses indicating human freedom and the supporters of absolute liberty have tried to explain away the verses indicating that everything is divinely ordained. As we have seen actually there is no inconsistency between these two sets of verses. The riddle stands solved. The comprehensiveness of destiny does not necessarily mean that there is no such thing as destiny. As such the question of any contradiction between destiny and human volition does not arise, and there is no need to explain away anything.
For example the Qur’an says that it is Allah who guides the people to the right or the wrong path, who bestows on them honour, power and health and who provides them with the means of living: Even the virtue and the vice both have been ascribed to His Will.
The Holy Qur’an says: “It is Allah to leave in error whom He will and to guide whom He pleases. He is the Mighty, the Wise”. (Surah Ibrahim, 14:4)
“Say: O Allah! Owner of Sovereignty! You bestow sovereignty on whomever you will and you withdraw sovereignty from whomever you will. You exalt whomever you will and you abase whom you will. In Your hand is all that is good. No doubt you have power to do everything”. (Surah Aale Imran, 3:26)
“Surely Allah is the provider of everything and the possessor of Mighty Power”. (Surah al-Zariyat, 51:58)
“In the heaven is your providence and that which you are promised”. (Surah al-Zariyat, 51:22)
The Holy Qur’an quotes Ibrahim as having said: “He gives me food and drink. If I fall sick, He cures me. He will cause me to die, and will bring me back to life”. (Surah al-Shu’ara’, 26:79 – 81)
About the happy and the evil things the Qur’an says: “Say: Everything is from Allah”. (Surah al-Nisa, 4:78)
But these verses do not deny the intervention of the natural causes. Hence there is no contradiction between them and the other verses which clearly show that it is man himself who chooses the right or the right or the wrong path, acquires power and honour, and earns his livelihood.
For example, the Qur’an says: As for Thamud, We showed them the right path, but they preferred blindness to guidance, consequently they were bit by the humiliating punishment of a dreadful noise which they deserved because of their misdeeds”. (Surah Fussilat, 41:17)
Referring to the downfall of Pharaoh’s gang, the Holy Qur’an says: “That is because Allah does not withdraw the favour He has bestowed on any people unless they first change what is in their hearts, and that is because Allah is Hearer, Knower”. (Surah al-Anfal, 8:53)
Criticizing the predestinarian belief of the pagan Arabs, the Holy Qur’an says: “When it is said to them: Give in charity out of what Allah has provided you, the disbelievers say to those who believe: Are we to feed those whom Allah would feed if He willed? Surely you are in a clear error”. (Surah Yasin, 36:47)
Again the Holy Qur’an says: “Corruption has become rife in land and sea because of the misdeeds of the people”. (Surah al-Rum, 30:41)
The fact is, as already pointed out, that Allah’s Will, His Knowledge and His Decrees do not nullify the system of causation. Actually this whole infinite system springs from His Will and Knowledge and its effectiveness means the effectiveness of His Will.
On this basis it is wrong to say which act is Allah’s and which is not His. Such a division is meaningless. If an act has been ascribed to some other being, it cannot be said that it is not Allah’s. The division of work between the Creator and the created is wrong. Any act of a doer is that of Allah also.
There is a hadith in the Tuhaf-ul-Uqul, which appears to be a letter written by Imam Hadi (a), the tenth Imam, to some of his supporters in Ahwaz (Iran) on the doctrines of predestination, absolute discretion and justice. In this letter he writes:
“A person asked Imam Ali (a) whether man has power and ability or he lacks them. If he has the power to do things, then how is it possible to say that there is no power nor help but from Allah?”
From the wording of the hadith it appears that the questioner believed that man had the power and ability to do things, Hence he was unable to understand how the question of Allah’s Will and Divine Decree could fit in.
In reply the Imam said to him: “You asked about ability. Do you have this ability with Allah or without Him!” The questioner was baffled. The Imam said: “If you assert that you and Allah share this ability and power, I would put you to death (because you would be claiming to be a co-partner of Allah). If you say that you have this ability without Allah, again I would put you to death (because you would be presuming that you are independent of Allah. Such a presumptions again infidelity, for independence in any affair means independence in essence).
“The questioner said: Then what should I say?”
The Imam (a) said: “You have ability by the Will of Allah, while He has it independently. If He endows you with it, that is His favour. If He takes it away from you, that means He is testing you. In any case, you should remember that whatever He bestows on you, He is still its owner. If He enables you to do a thing, that thing is still within His power”.
In short, this hadith indicates that while an effect is ascribed to its cause, it is attributable to Allah also. When we ascribe an act to its normal and natural doer, we ascribe it to its non-self-existing agent, and when we attribute it to Allah, we ascribe it to its self-existing agent. It is Allah who endows things with the power and quality of producing an effect. It is He who bestows the ownership of anything on anyone. But there is one basic difference between the bestowal of ownership by Allah and the transfer of ownership by a man. After a man has transferred the ownership of a thing, it is no longer his property. But Allah continues to be the owner of a thing even after He has bestowed it on anyone else. His bestowal is not inconsistent with His continued ownership. It is only a manifestation of His being the owner. Similarly Allah endows things with the quality of producing an effect, and at the same time He is the Master of all effects. There are many other hadiths which support this view.
Reference: ImamReza.net